Near infrared-driven photocatalytic overall water splitting: Progress and perspective

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(23)64594-2

Abstract

Abstract:

The conversion of solar energy into clean and sustainable hydrogen (H₂) fuel from water using simple and cost-effective photocatalytic technologies is one of the most potential ways for achieving carbon neutrality. However, the near-infrared (NIR) region of solar spectrum, which encompasses approximately half of the total solar photon flux, remains an abundant energy source that is currently underutilized. The exploration of NIR-active photocatalysts for solar overall water splitting, as highlighted here, represents not only a momentous breakthrough towards sustainable H₂ generation, but also initiates a new chapter in the realm of artificial photosynthesis. In this review, we delve into the latest advancements in material design and engineering of NIR-active and full-spectrum-responsive photocatalysts for solar overall water splitting, highlighting their current status and potential impact. A primary focus is on gaining a fundamental understanding of the intricate relationship between material characteristics, catalytic properties, and functional mechanisms underlying the NIR-driven water splitting process. Furthermore, we outline the challenges and future prospects for further exploiting the vast potential of NIR-activated photocatalysts in solar overall water splitting.

Key words: Photocatalysis, Near-infrared region, Overall water splitting, Material design, Mechanism

Yuanyong Huang, Hong Yang, Xinyu Lu, Min Chen, Weidong Shi. Near infrared-driven photocatalytic overall water splitting: Progress and perspective[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2024, 58: 105-122.

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Figures/Tables 18

Fig. 1. Number of publications in the last five years in the photocatalytic area using “ultraviolet* or UV light-driven”, “visible* or vis-light-driven”, “near-infrared* or NIR-driven” and “photocatalytic overall water splitting” as the four topical key words. (Adapted from ISI Web of Science Core Collection, date of search: Oct. 3, 2023).

Fig. 2. Timeline showing key developments in photocatalytic water splitting towards broadband absorption.

Table 1 Summary of current progress in component design and engineering of NIR-activated photocatalysts for overall water splitting.

Photocatalyst	NIR photon harvester	Material design method	Light source	Optical power density (mW cm^‒2)	Reaction temperature (K)	Extended wavelength (nm)	H₂ production (μmol h^‒1)	O₂ production (μmol h^‒1)	Ref.
PtO_x/WN	WN	band engineering	300 W Xenon lamp	N.A.	283	765	5 × 10^‒7	2.5 × 10^‒7	[46]
W₂N/C/TiO	W₂N	hybrid with narrow bandgap semiconductor	300 W Xenon lamp	N.A.	277	> 700	5 × 10^‒2	2.5 × 10^‒2	[74]
WO₂-Na_xWO₃-CDs	WO₂	hybrid with narrow bandgap semiconductor	N.A.	N.A.	N.A.	> 760	4.74	2.28	[75]
BP/C₃N₄	BP	surface plasmonic effect	300 W Xenon lamp	N.A.	N.A.	730	2 × 10^‒2	N.A.	[94]
CuCo-CDs	CuCo	surface plasmonic Effect	300 W Xenon lamp	N.A.	N.A.	800	N.A.	N.A.	[93]
Ag-PDA/ZnO	Ag-PDA	surface plasmonic effect	CEL-PECX2000 xenon lamp light source	N.A.	300 ± 1	908	1.41	0.68	[92]
CdS-RGO-NaYF₄- Yb³⁺/Er³⁺	NaYF₄-Yb³⁺/Er³⁺	up-conversion effect	3-W 980 nm laser	N.A.	298	980	0.2225	N.A.	[111]
r-CQDs-TiO₂	CQDs	up-conversion effect	300 W Xenon lamp	20	N.A.	> 800	3.02	1.5	[110]
PA-Ni_1.1@ PCN/Pt_5hNIR	PA-Ni	photosensitization	300 W Xenon lamp	3.9	293	> 800	5.8 × 10^‒2	2.7 × 10^‒2	[117]

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of NIR-activated overall water splitting using semiconductor-based photocatalysts.

Fig. 4. (a) The main limiting factors of NIR-activated overall water splitting. (b) The basic process of NIR-driven overall water splitting using single semiconductor-based photocatalytic systems.

Fig. 5. Currently reported NIR-driven overall water splitting mechanism.

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the direct NIR-activated overall water splitting by single component semiconductors.

Fig. 7. (a) The crystal structure model of WN. (b) XRD pattern of WN. (c) Theoretical band structure of WN. (d) The absorption spectrum of WN. Inset: Tauc plots of WN. (e) The dependence of photocatalytic overall water splitting on the cut-off wavelength. (f) Possible photocatalytic mechanism. (g) Standard Gibbs free energy of water splitting. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [46]. Copyright 2017, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 8. (a) Schematical illustration of the preparation of W2N/C/TiO ternary nanocomposites. (b) The absorption spectrum of as-prepared samples. (c) Photocurrent response of various samples at λ > 700 nm. (d) Time-resolved PL spectra. (e) Time-dependent on activity of NIR-activated overall water splitting using W2N/C/TiO photocatalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [74]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 9. (a) Schematic diagram of plasmonic oscillation. (b) The various energy forms in the activation process under NIR light irradiation. (c) The mechanism of plasmon-induced energy transfer (PIRET). (d) Direct electron injection energy transfer (DET) mechanism.

Fig. 10. (a) The schematic diagram of the plasmonic up-conversion path. (b) TEM image of Ag-%5 PDA-ZnO. (c) The absorption spectra of the as-obtained samples. (d) The photocurrent response at λ = 908 nm. (e) Wavelength dependent activity of photocatalytic overall water splitting. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [92]. Copyright 2022, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 12. (a) TEM image. (b) PL spectra of the samples with 980 nm excitation. (c) Fluorescence lifetime spectra. (d) Photocatalytic water splitting performance. (e) Electron transfer from GQDs to TiO2 studied by in situ XPS. (f) Proposed possible mechanism. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [110]. Copyright 2022, Science.

Fig. 13. (a) Schematic diagram of preparation for PA-Ni@PCN/Pt-SAC ternary composites. (b) Elemental mapping images. (c) NIR-activated overall water splitting of PA-Ni1.1@PCN/Pt5hNIR. (d) The decay kinetics of the transient absorption at 850 nm. (e) Proposed possible mechanism. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [117]. Copyright 2022, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 14. (a) Schematic diagram for the preparation of CDs-sensitized TiO2 systems. (b) TEM image and a SAED pattern (inset) of the as-obtained CDs. (c) UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum of as-prepared samples. (d) Photocatalytic overall water splitting using CDs/TiO2 composites under different irradiation conditions. (e) Proposed possible mechanism. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [124]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 15. (a) Crystal structures of Ce(IV)-UiO-66-X (X = functional groups). (b) XRD pattern of the Ce-UiO-66-NH2 obtained at different temperatures (25, 40, 60 °C), picture insert: the photograph of the resulting solution. (c) N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms of as-prepared samples. (d) The band diagram structures of as-prepared samples. (e) Photocatalytic overall water splitting using Pt@Ce-UiO-66-NH2 under simulated sunlight irradiation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [127]. Copyright 2023, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 16. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of Au@N-doped TiO2. (b) UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum. (c) OCVD of N-doped TiO2 and Au particles confined N-doped TiO2. (d) Average lifetime of the photogenerated carriers (τn) obtained by OCVD. (e) Photocatalytic overall water splitting using the Au@N-doped TiO2 under various irradiation conditions. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [128]. Copyright 2016, Elsevier.

Fig. 17. (a) Schematic representation of the photocatalytic overall water splitting by means of an ultra-thin a-NiOx under irradiation with the full spectrum. (b) Comparison of the XRD patterns with a-NiOx and c-NiO. (c) UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra. Transient absorption spectra of (d) a-NiOx, (e) C3N4 and (f) a-NiOx||C3N4 after irradiation with a 400 nm laser flash. (g) Comparison of photocatalytic water splitting performance between a-NiOx||Pt/C3N4 and c-NiO||Pt/C3N4. (h) Wavelength-dependent AQE of a-NiOx||Pt/C3N4. (i) Stability test of a-NiOx||Pt/C3N4 under irradiation with the full spectrum. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [136]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

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