1D-based nanostructures in photocatalytic CO2 reduction

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(24)60214-7

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2025, Vol. 70: 230-259.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(24)60214-7

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1D-based nanostructures in photocatalytic CO₂ reduction

Farideh Kolahdouzan^a, Nahal Goodarzi^a, Mahboobeh Setayeshmehr^b, Dorsa Sadat Mousavi^b, Alireza Z. Moshfegh^a^,^b^,^*()

^aCenter for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Institute for Convergence Science and Technology, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran 14588-89694, Iran
^bDepartment of Physics, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran 11555-9161, Iran

Received:2024-09-26 Accepted:2024-11-11 Online:2025-03-18 Published:2025-03-20
Contact: * E-mail: moshfegh@sharif.edu (A. Moshfegh).
About author:Professor Alireza Z. Moshfegh received his PhD in Physics at University of Houston, Texas (USA) in 1990. After two years of Post-Doctoral research activity in Texas Center for Superconductivity, he joined as an assistant professor in Department of Physics at the Sharif University of Technology (SUT) in Tehran, Iran. He is the founder of Vacuum Society of Iran (VSI) and acted as its president (2004‒2010) as well as co-founder of Iranian Society of Surface Science &Technology (ISSST). He is selected as the first ranked physics researcher in Iran in 2011. He established a large multidisciplinary research group called NEST (Nano-Energy-Surface-Thin films) (https://nest.sharif.edu) in 2012. The activity of the group mainly focuses on surface processes using 2D/1D/0D nanostructures and hierarchical heterostructures. He is selected as the “Chair of Surface & Interface Sciences" by Iran National Science Foundation in 2016 and promoted to “Distinguished Professor” in the SUT in 2017. His research interests focus mainly on the role of surfaces/interfaces of materials in photocatalysis/electrocatalysis for clean energy production and environmental remediation. He is serving as editorial board member of several reputable Journals including “ACS ES&T Engineering”, “Vacuum” and “Research in Chemical Intermediates”. He has published more than 180 peer-reviewed research articles, review papers and book chapters that all cited over 9600 times with H = 52 (Google Scholar).

Abstract

Abstract:

Air pollution and global warming have aroused great interest in CO₂ conversion research, as CO₂ is the most important greenhouse gas. Photocatalytic CO₂ reduction reaction (CRR) is a key carbon capture and utilization (CCU) technology aimed at transforming CO₂ into valuable products like fuels and chemicals. However, many semiconductor photocatalysts used in CRR face challenges such as low optical absorption, poor charge carrier separation, and electron-hole recombination, leading to low reaction yields. Some important solutions to these issues include reducing nanostructure dimensions, cocatalyst decoration, as well as metal/nonmetal doping, and heterojunction construction. One-dimensional (1D) nanostructures like nanorods, nanotubes, nanowires, and nanofibers are prominent photocatalysts for CO₂ reduction process due to their excellent light absorption capability, high electron-hole separation efficiency, high aspect ratio, and abundant exposed active surface sites. In this research, after studying CO₂ reduction mechanism, we first discuss 1D nanomaterials growth methods based on the growing environment. Types of 1D nanostructures in photocatalytic CRR, have been also investigated. Two main strategies to improve 1D-based photocatalysts in CRR including surface modification and heterojunction construction are reviewed. Finally, the report presents some important challenges of the CRR and their solutions for future applications.

Key words: Photocatalytic CO₂ conversion, One-dimensional nanostructure, Value-added product, Heterojunction, S-scheme, Greenhouse gas

Farideh Kolahdouzan, Nahal Goodarzi, Mahboobeh Setayeshmehr, Dorsa Sadat Mousavi, Alireza Z. Moshfegh. 1D-based nanostructures in photocatalytic CO₂ reduction[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2025, 70: 230-259.

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Figures/Tables 36

Fig. 1. (a) Changes in CO2 levels during the Earth’s last three glacial cycles, as captured by air bubbles trapped in ice sheets and glaciers. Reproduced from Ref. [7]. (b) The graph on total increase in energy-related CO2 emissions during 1900?2023 obtained from IEA report 2023 [8].

Fig. 2. (a) The trend of published articles on photocatalytic CO2 reduction/conversion between 2010 to July 2024 (received from Scopus citation database) using keywords in ("photocatal*") AND ("CO2 reduction") OR ("CO2 conversion"). (b) The trend of published articles on photocatalytic CO2 reduction/conversion based on 1D nanostructures between 2010 to July 2024 (retrieved from Scopus citation database) using keywords in ("photocatal*") AND ("CO2 reduction") OR ("CO2 conversion") AND ("one-dimensional") OR ("1D") OR ("nanorod") OR ("nanotube") OR ("nanowire") OR ("nanofiber").

Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of the main steps in photocatalytic CRR.

Fig. 4. Band gap energies of some typical semiconductors relative to the CO2 reduction potential in conversion to different products at pH = 7.

Fig. 5. The main products resulting from different CO2 reduction pathways with their associated standard redox potentials (at pH = 7) [63].

Fig. 6. Three different modes for CO2 adsorption on the surface of photocatalyst. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [64].

Fig. 7. Schematic illustration of three probable mechanistic pathways for photocatalytic CO2 reduction [66].

Fig. 8. Promising properties of one-dimensional nanostructures.

Fig. 9. Optical band gap energy of 1D TiO2 nanostructures and their precursors. Inset: UV-vis DRS spectra in %R. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [90].

Fig. 10. Different methods for growth of 1D nanostructures.

Fig. 11. (a) Synthesis scheme of CCNBs. (b,c) SEM images of CCNBs. (d) Time-dependent CO evolution of bulk g-C3N4, nanosized g-C3N4 and CCNBs samples. (e) CO and CH4 production rates under light illumination for 5 h. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [106].

Fig. 12. (a) Schematic of the preparation of the TC/CCN-FD photocatalyst. SEM images of CCN (b), Ti3C2Tx (c), and TC/CCN-FD (d). (e) CO and CH4 photocatalytic production from different samples under full spectrum irradiation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [68].

Fig. 13. (a) Schematic drawing for the synthetic procedure of porous tubular CNA samples. (b,c) SEM images of porous tubular structure CNA2.5. (d) UV-Vis DRS and (e) the corresponding energy band values using Tauc plot. (f) Band position of the sample. (g) CO and CH4 yields of samples under visible light irradiation for 6 h. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [110].

Fig. 14. (a) XRD patterns of TNTs and Cu2O modified TNTs. SEM images of the prepared samples: top view of TNTs (b) and TC5 (c). (d) CH4 production rate in the presence of water vapor over the synthesized samples, under visible light irradiation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [69].

Fig. 15. (a) Crystal structure of FeVO4. (b) XRD patterns of FeVO4 photocatalyst synthesized at several pH values. SEM image (c) and TEM image (d) of FeVO4 nanowires. (e) Photocatalytic CO production quantities as a function of irradiation times. (f) Stability testing for catalytic CO generation over the FeVO4 nanowires. (g) Product selectivity of photocatalytic CO2 reduction to CO and CH4 over different FeVO4 samples. (h) XRD analysis of the FeVO4 nanowires after the stability test. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [115].

Fig. 16. (a) Schematic of the synthesis process of La1?xSrxCo1?δFeδO3 nanofibers. (b,c) TEM images of La0.8Sr0.2CoO3. (d) The photoreduction performance of CO2 with La1?xSrxCoO3 nanofibers. (e) Stability test of the La0.8Sr0.2Co0.7Fe0.3O3 nanofibers. (f) Corresponding the XRD patterns of the La0.8Sr0.2Co0.7Fe0.3O3 nanofibers before and after CRR. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [120].

Fig. 17. (a) Schematic of the formation of OV-rich ultrafine Bi5O7Br nanowires. (b) TEM image of OV-poor Bi5O7Br nanowires. (c) EPR spectra of the OV-rich, OV-poor Bi5O7Br nanowires and bulk Bi5O7Br. (d) CO production yield as a function of irradiation times over the Bi5O7Br photocatalysts. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [134].

Fig. 18. (a) preparation processes of x% Cu-SrTiO3 nanofibers photocatalysts. SEM images of 4%Cu-ST (b), 6%Cu-ST (c), 8%Cu-ST (d), and 10%Cu-ST (e) nanofibers. (f) The rate of photocatalytic CO2 reduction products for different Cu concentrations in the x% Cu-SrTiO3 nanofiber photocatalysts (x = 4, 6, 8, and 10). (g) Cycle stability test of the 8%Cu-ST. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [137].

Fig. 19. (a) Synthesis of A-ZrO2 and PtSA loading process. (b) SEM image of PtSA/ZrO2 with a magnified inset. (c) Photocatalytic CO2 reduction products on A-ZrO2, C-ZrO2, and PtSA/ZrO2 under visible light for 2. (d) Comparison of CO and CH4 selectivity of the A-ZrO2, C-ZrO2, and PtSA/ZrO2. (e) Schematic diagram of photoelectron transfer pathways in various systems. (f) Schematic diagram of the Pt SA/ZrO2 system for photocatalytic CO2 conversion under visible light irradiation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [138].

Fig. 20. (a) Schematic diagram showing preparation of the Ag NP/GaN@β Ga2O3 NW heterojunctions. (b) SEM image of Ag NPs distribution on the surface of the GaN@β-Ga2O3 NWs. (c,d) Evaluation of the photocatalytic activity of various photocatalysts for CO2 reduction under illumination. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [141]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 21. Cross-sectional view SEM images of photocatalysts: (a) bare TiO2 nanorod, (b) C2 CdS-Cu2+/TiO2. (c) Impact of SILAR cycles on ethanol yield. (d) Effect of CO2 flow rate on ethanol yield at temperature of 60 °C. (e) Influence of reaction temperature on ethanol yield at flow rate of 4 mL/min. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [143].

Table 1 Summary of 1D structures used in photocatalytic CO2 reduction into valuable products.

1D nano- structures	Photocatalyst	Synthesis method	Surface modification method	Light source/intensity	Main products/yield	Ref.
Nanofiber	x%Cu-SrTiO₃	electrospinning	metal loading	300 W Xe lamp	CH₃OH/8.08 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[137]
Nanofiber	carbon nanofibers@TiO₂ (50 mg)	hydrothermal	fabrication of nanocomposite	350W Xe arc lamp	CH₄/13.52 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[144]
Nanowire	Bi₅O₇Br (20 mg)	solvothermal	defect engineering	300 W Xe lamp with an AM 1.5G filter	CO/18.04 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[134]
	Pt SA/ZrO₂ (20 mg)	ultrasonication and calcination	co-catalyst decoration	300 W Xe lamp	CO/16.61 mmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[138]
	Cu NWs@ZIF-8 (5 mg)	hydrothermal	fabrication of nanocomposite	300 W Xe lamp with a 420 nm cutoff filter	CO/176.2 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[145]
	Ag-doped CuV₂O₆ (10mg)	hydrothermal	metal doping	300 W Xe lamp	CO/6.95 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[146]
	Co(OH)₂/CdS (40 mg)	solvothermal	co-catalyst decoration	300 W Xe lamp	CO/8.11 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[147]
	Au/SiNW	electroless plating method	co-catalyst decoration	solar simulator PEC-L11	CO/~32 μmol h⁻¹	[148]
Nanotube	Au-TNTs	electrochemical deposition	metal loading	visible light, Xe lamp (500 W)	CH₄/14.67%	[149]
	nitrogen-rich g-C₃N₄	hydrothermal	defect engineering	300 W Xe lamp	CO/103.6 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[150]
	CNA_X (5 mg)	calcination	defect engineering	300 W Xe lamp	CO/12.58 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[110]
	CdS-S_V@Co@NCNT (5 mg)	solvothermal	defect engineering, co-catalyst decoration, nonmetal doping	300 W Xe lamp	CO/263.3 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹ CH₄/13.2 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[151]
	Cu/g-C₃N₄(10 mg)	hydrothermal and calcination	metal doping	50 W LED	CO/11.55 μmol g⁻¹ CH₄/4.72 μmol g⁻¹	[152]
Nanorod	CdS-Cu²⁺/TiO₂	hydrothermal	surface sensitization metal doping	300 W Xe lamp	C₂H₅OH/ 109.12 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[143]
	CdO/CdS (5 mg)	modified solvothermal	fabrication of nanocomposite	455 nm LEDs	CO/6.3 mmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[47]
	Cu modified g-C₃N₄ (50 mg)	chemical vapor co-deposition	metal loading	300 W Xe lamp	CO/49.57 μmol g⁻¹ CH₄/3.64 μmol g⁻¹	[106]

Table 1 Summary of 1D structures used in photocatalytic CO2 reduction into valuable products.

1D nano- structures	Photocatalyst	Synthesis method	Surface modification method	Light source/intensity	Main products/yield	Ref.
Nanofiber	x%Cu-SrTiO₃	electrospinning	metal loading	300 W Xe lamp	CH₃OH/8.08 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[137]
Nanofiber	carbon nanofibers@TiO₂ (50 mg)	hydrothermal	fabrication of nanocomposite	350W Xe arc lamp	CH₄/13.52 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[144]
Nanowire	Bi₅O₇Br (20 mg)	solvothermal	defect engineering	300 W Xe lamp with an AM 1.5G filter	CO/18.04 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[134]
	Pt SA/ZrO₂ (20 mg)	ultrasonication and calcination	co-catalyst decoration	300 W Xe lamp	CO/16.61 mmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[138]
	Cu NWs@ZIF-8 (5 mg)	hydrothermal	fabrication of nanocomposite	300 W Xe lamp with a 420 nm cutoff filter	CO/176.2 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[145]
	Ag-doped CuV₂O₆ (10mg)	hydrothermal	metal doping	300 W Xe lamp	CO/6.95 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[146]
	Co(OH)₂/CdS (40 mg)	solvothermal	co-catalyst decoration	300 W Xe lamp	CO/8.11 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[147]
	Au/SiNW	electroless plating method	co-catalyst decoration	solar simulator PEC-L11	CO/~32 μmol h⁻¹	[148]
Nanotube	Au-TNTs	electrochemical deposition	metal loading	visible light, Xe lamp (500 W)	CH₄/14.67%	[149]
	nitrogen-rich g-C₃N₄	hydrothermal	defect engineering	300 W Xe lamp	CO/103.6 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[150]
	CNA_X (5 mg)	calcination	defect engineering	300 W Xe lamp	CO/12.58 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[110]
	CdS-S_V@Co@NCNT (5 mg)	solvothermal	defect engineering, co-catalyst decoration, nonmetal doping	300 W Xe lamp	CO/263.3 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹ CH₄/13.2 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[151]
	Cu/g-C₃N₄(10 mg)	hydrothermal and calcination	metal doping	50 W LED	CO/11.55 μmol g⁻¹ CH₄/4.72 μmol g⁻¹	[152]
Nanorod	CdS-Cu²⁺/TiO₂	hydrothermal	surface sensitization metal doping	300 W Xe lamp	C₂H₅OH/ 109.12 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[143]
	CdO/CdS (5 mg)	modified solvothermal	fabrication of nanocomposite	455 nm LEDs	CO/6.3 mmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[47]
	Cu modified g-C₃N₄ (50 mg)	chemical vapor co-deposition	metal loading	300 W Xe lamp	CO/49.57 μmol g⁻¹ CH₄/3.64 μmol g⁻¹	[106]

Fig. 22. Schematic illustration of three different conventional heterostructures: (a) type-I, (b) type-II, (c) type-III.

Fig. 23. (a) CO2 photoreduction performance of the COF-5/CoAl-LDH photocatalyst. (b) CO and CH4 selectivity of the photocatalyst. (c) Illustration of the carrier transfer mechanism for CO2 reduction over the photocatalyst. (d) TRPL spectrum of the photocatalysts. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [165].

Fig. 24. (a) Preparation steps of the STO@CCN photocatalyst. (b) The gas-solid reaction for introducing cyano defects in the g-C3N4. SEM (c) and TEM (d) images of the STO@CCN-2 nanotubes. (e) Schematic illustration of the carrier migration directions in type-II STO@CCN nanotubes. (f) The photocatalytic solar fuel generation rates of the different photocatalysts. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [166].

Fig. 25. Schematic illustration of charge transfer for three Z-scheme heterostructures: (a) traditional Z-scheme, (b) all-solid-state Z-scheme, (c) direct Z-scheme.

Fig. 26. TEM images (a) and charge carrier transition mechanism (b) in all-solid-state ZnFe2O4/Ag/TiO2 nanorods. (c) Photoluminescence spectra (PL) of TiO2 NRs, ZnFe2O4/TiO2 NRs and ZnFe2O4/Ag/TiO2 NRs photocatalysts. (d) Photocatalytic performance of ZnFe2O4/Ag/TiO2 nanoparticles vs. ZnFe2O4/Ag/TiO2 nanorods. (e) Stability analysis of the photocatalyst. (f) Raman analysis of the fresh and reused photocatalyst. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [187].

Fig. 27. (a) The schematic illustration for the synthesis of BPQDs-WO3. (b) The charge transfer mechanism of CO2 reduction over the BPQDs-WO3. (c,d) Photocatalytic performance of the BPQD-WO3 heterostructures for CO production and C2H4 evolution as a function of light illumination times, respectively. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [193].

Fig. 28. Schematic illustration of charge transfer process in S-scheme heterostructures: before contact (a), after contact (b), and under light irradiation (c).

Fig. 29. Various characterization techniques for study of the charge carrier transfer mechanism in S-scheme heterojunctions.

Fig. 30. (a) Schematic illustration of the CTO/CN synthesis. (b,c) Spectra of DMPO-?O2- and DMPO-?OH for pure g-C3N4, CoTiO3, and 2% CTO/CN. (d) The mechanism of carrier migration in the CTO/CN heterojunction. (e) The yields of CO and CH4 production over the as-prepared photocatalysts Reproduced with permission from Ref. [207].

Fig. 31. High-resolution XPS spectra of C 1s (a), N 1s (b), Co 2p (c), Ti 2p (d), and O 1s (e). (f) Gibbs free energy profiles for the photoreduction of CO2 to CO/CH4 using the CTO/CN. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [207].

Fig. 32. (a) Schematic illustration of preparation procedure of the hierarchical In2O3@Co2VO4. (b) FESEM image of the In2O3@Co2VO4 photocatalyst. The yield of H2 (c), CO (d), and CH4 (e) generation over the photocatalysts under UV-vis light illumination. (f) CH4 selectivity of the photocatalysts. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [208].

Fig. 33. High-resolution XPS spectra of In 3d (a), Co 2p (b), and O 1s (c) of In2O3, Co2VO4, and IC20. (d) Schematic illustration of the charge carrier transfer and the IEF formation between In2O3 and Co2VO4 after contact. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [208].

Fig. 34. (a) DRIFTS spectra of CO2 photoreduction over the optimized In2O3@Co2VO4. (b) Gibbs free energy calculations of CO2 photoreduction over the Co2VO4 (001) slabs. The purple, pink, green, orange, and yellow spheres represent Co, V, O, C, and H atoms, respectively. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [208].

Table 2 Summary of 1D-based heterostructures used in photocatalytic CO2 reduction into valuable products.

Heterojunctions	Photocatalyst	Synthesis method	Light source /intensity	Main product /yield	Ref.
Type II	hollow tubular ZnO@ZnS (2 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CO/24.09 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[209]
	2D/1D nested hollow porous ZnIn₂S₄/g-C₃N₄ nanotube (50 mg)	hydrothermal and calcination	300 W Xe lamp,	CO/79.96 μmol g⁻¹	[210]
	2D/1D nested hollow porous ZnIn₂S₄/g-C₃N₄ nanotube (50 mg)	hydrothermal and calcination	λ > 420 nm	CH₄/17.33 μmol g⁻¹	[210]
	halloysite Nanotubes HNTs@g-C₃N₄/Au/CdS (HCAC) (20 mg)	annealing and successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR)	UV-Vis light irradiation	CO/55.4 μmol g⁻¹	[211]
	halloysite Nanotubes HNTs@g-C₃N₄/Au/CdS (HCAC) (20 mg)		UV-Vis light irradiation	CH₄/8.6 μmol g⁻¹	[211]
	ZnSe nanorods-CsSnCl₃ perovskite (5 mg)	hot-injection method	300 W Xe lamp (SolarEdge 700, 100 mW cm⁻², 25 °C )	CO/53.96 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[212]
	ZnSe nanorods-CsSnCl₃ perovskite (5 mg)	hot-injection method	300 W Xe lamp (SolarEdge 700, 100 mW cm⁻², 25 °C )	CH₄/2.55 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[212]
	rod like MOF-derived	solvothermal	50 W Mercury lamp (λ = 380 nm; 130 mW cm⁻²)	CO/95.8 μmol g⁻¹	[213]
	NPC-MoS₂@Bi₄O₅Br₂ (20 mg)	solvothermal	50 W Mercury lamp (λ = 380 nm; 130 mW cm⁻²)	CH₄/159.9 μmol g⁻¹	[213]
	2D/1D BiOBr/CdS nanorods (10 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp with a 420 nm cut-off optical filter	CO/13.6 μmol g⁻¹	[214]
Z-scheme	1D/0D hollow Bi₂S₃ nanotubes/Cd_xZn₁₋_xS nanospheres (30 mg)	in situ electrostatic	300 W Xe lamp	CO/32.11 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[215]
		self-assembly method	300 W Xe lamp	H₂/33.10 μmol g⁻¹h⁻¹	[215]
	(1D/2D) CoTe nanorods/PCN (25 mg)	self-assembly	300 W Xe lamp	CO/32.84 μmol g^-1	[216]
	nanorod-shaped CdS/Fe₂O₃ (0.1 g)	hydrothermal	UV and visible lamp (100 W cm⁻² and 9 W cm⁻²)	CH₄/16.5 μmol g⁻¹	[217]
	BiVO₄/Carbon-Coated Cu₂O nanowire	electrochemical anodization and carbonization followed by the SILAR method	Visible light (>420 nm)	CO/3.01 μmol g⁻¹h⁻¹	[218]
	BiVO₄/Carbon-Coated Cu₂O nanowire		100 mW cm⁻²	CO/3.01 μmol g⁻¹h⁻¹	[218]
	Ni-CoTCPP/TiO₂ nanotube	hydrothermal and anodization	500 W Xe	CH₄/52.27 μmol cm^-2h⁻¹	[219]
	Cu₂O QDs/TiO₂ nanotubes (50 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CH₄/97%	[220]
	ZnO-Au-Titanium oxide nanotubes (0.25 g)	hydrothermal	UV light reactor equipped with eight (8w) light tubes (λ = 254 nm)	CH₃OH/	[221]
	ZnO-Au-Titanium oxide nanotubes (0.25 g)	hydrothermal		7777.1 μmol g^{− 1}h^{− 1}	[221]
	P-O linked g-C₃N₄/TiO₂-nanotubes (0.5 g)	solid sublimation and conversion followed by an impregnation method	Xe lamp	Acetic/46.9 ± 0.76 mg L⁻¹h⁻¹	[222]
				Methanol/38.2 ± 0.69 mg L⁻¹h⁻¹
				Formic acids/28.8 ± 0.64 mg L⁻¹h⁻¹
	FeOOH nanorod/PCN (25 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp with AM1.5 filter	CH₄ />85%	[223]
	Zn₂GeO₄ nanorod/ZIF-67 (150 mg)	deposition of Zn₂GeO₄ nanorod on highly crystalline ZIF-67	300 W Xe lamp	CH₃OH/5.15 μmol g⁻¹h⁻¹	[103]
	Zn₂GeO₄ nanorod/ZIF-67 (150 mg)	deposition of Zn₂GeO₄ nanorod on highly crystalline ZIF-67	300 W Xe lamp	C₂H₅OH/4.08 μmol g⁻¹h⁻¹	[103]
S-scheme	In₂S₃/Nb₂O₅ hybrid nanofiber (50 mg)	electrospinning followed by air annealing and solvothermal	simulated sunlight	CO/60.36 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[224]
	In₂S₃/Nb₂O₅ hybrid nanofiber (50 mg)	electrospinning followed by air annealing and solvothermal	(full spectrum)	CO/60.36 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[224]
	Fe-TiO_2‒_x/TiO₂ nanorod (3 mg)	surface modification approach	300 W Xe lamp	CO/122 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[225]
	Fe-TiO_2‒_x/TiO₂ nanorod (3 mg)	surface modification approach	300 W Xe lamp	CH₄/22 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[225]
	1D/2D g-C₃N₄ nanorods/CoAlLa-LDH	hydrothermal and calcination	35 W Xe lamp	CO/44.62 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[226]
	1D/2D g-C₃N₄ nanorods/CoAlLa-LDH	hydrothermal and calcination	35 W Xe lamp	CH₄/36.66 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[226]
	W₁₈O₄₉ ultrathin nanowires /CsPbBr₃	hot-injection	300 W Xe lamp with a power of 100 mW cm⁻² with a 420 nm cut-off filter	CO/143 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[227]
	(10 mg)	hot-injection		CO/143 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[227]
	C-In₂O₃ nanorods/W₁₈O₄₉ nanowire	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CO/135.82 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[228]
	(50 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CO/135.82 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[228]
	Ag/AgVO₃/TiO₂-nanowires (0.25 g)	hydrothermal	UV light	CH₃OH/9561.3 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[229]
	carbon dots anchored NiAl-LDH@In₂O₃hierarchical nanotubes (5 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp, AM1.5G	CO/7.121 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[230]
		hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp, AM1.5G	CH₄/9.769 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[230]
	hierarchical Bi₂MoO₆@In₂S₃ heterostructured nanotubes (30 mg)	solvothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CO/28.54 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[231]
		solvothermal	(≥ 420 nm)	CO/28.54 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[231]
	In₂O₃/Nb₂O₅ hybrid nanofibers (10 mg)	one-step electrospinning	300 W Xe arc lamp	CO/109.6 mmol g⁻¹ h^-1	[232]
	NiS@Ta₂O₅ hybrid nanofibers	electrospinning and Ion exchange method	500 W Xe lamp	CO/43.27 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[233]
	NiS@Ta₂O₅ hybrid nanofibers	electrospinning and Ion exchange method	500 W Xe lamp	CH₄/6.56 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[233]
	SnO₂ nanofibers/Cs₃Bi₂Br₉ (30 mg)	electrostatically self-assembling	300 W Xe lamp	CH₄/70%	[234]
	MCS(Mn_0.2Cd_0.8S)-wrapped MOF-BiOBr nanorods (50 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CO/60.59 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[235]
	MCS(Mn_0.2Cd_0.8S)-wrapped MOF-BiOBr nanorods (50 mg)	hydrothermal	(λ > 420 nm)	CO/60.59 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[235]
	CoTiO₃/Cd_9.51Zn_0.49S₁₀ nanowire (8 mg)	hydrothermal	Xenon lamp (equipped with 420 nm cut off filter)	CO/11 mmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[236]
	In₂O₃/Bi₁₉Br₃S₂₇ rod-like (50 mg)	calcination and solvothermal	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	CO/28.36 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[237]

Table 2 Summary of 1D-based heterostructures used in photocatalytic CO2 reduction into valuable products.

Heterojunctions	Photocatalyst	Synthesis method	Light source /intensity	Main product /yield	Ref.
Type II	hollow tubular ZnO@ZnS (2 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CO/24.09 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[209]
	2D/1D nested hollow porous ZnIn₂S₄/g-C₃N₄ nanotube (50 mg)	hydrothermal and calcination	300 W Xe lamp,	CO/79.96 μmol g⁻¹	[210]
	2D/1D nested hollow porous ZnIn₂S₄/g-C₃N₄ nanotube (50 mg)	hydrothermal and calcination	λ > 420 nm	CH₄/17.33 μmol g⁻¹	[210]
	halloysite Nanotubes HNTs@g-C₃N₄/Au/CdS (HCAC) (20 mg)	annealing and successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR)	UV-Vis light irradiation	CO/55.4 μmol g⁻¹	[211]
	halloysite Nanotubes HNTs@g-C₃N₄/Au/CdS (HCAC) (20 mg)		UV-Vis light irradiation	CH₄/8.6 μmol g⁻¹	[211]
	ZnSe nanorods-CsSnCl₃ perovskite (5 mg)	hot-injection method	300 W Xe lamp (SolarEdge 700, 100 mW cm⁻², 25 °C )	CO/53.96 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[212]
	ZnSe nanorods-CsSnCl₃ perovskite (5 mg)	hot-injection method	300 W Xe lamp (SolarEdge 700, 100 mW cm⁻², 25 °C )	CH₄/2.55 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[212]
	rod like MOF-derived	solvothermal	50 W Mercury lamp (λ = 380 nm; 130 mW cm⁻²)	CO/95.8 μmol g⁻¹	[213]
	NPC-MoS₂@Bi₄O₅Br₂ (20 mg)	solvothermal	50 W Mercury lamp (λ = 380 nm; 130 mW cm⁻²)	CH₄/159.9 μmol g⁻¹	[213]
	2D/1D BiOBr/CdS nanorods (10 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp with a 420 nm cut-off optical filter	CO/13.6 μmol g⁻¹	[214]
Z-scheme	1D/0D hollow Bi₂S₃ nanotubes/Cd_xZn₁₋_xS nanospheres (30 mg)	in situ electrostatic	300 W Xe lamp	CO/32.11 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[215]
		self-assembly method	300 W Xe lamp	H₂/33.10 μmol g⁻¹h⁻¹	[215]
	(1D/2D) CoTe nanorods/PCN (25 mg)	self-assembly	300 W Xe lamp	CO/32.84 μmol g^-1	[216]
	nanorod-shaped CdS/Fe₂O₃ (0.1 g)	hydrothermal	UV and visible lamp (100 W cm⁻² and 9 W cm⁻²)	CH₄/16.5 μmol g⁻¹	[217]
	BiVO₄/Carbon-Coated Cu₂O nanowire	electrochemical anodization and carbonization followed by the SILAR method	Visible light (>420 nm)	CO/3.01 μmol g⁻¹h⁻¹	[218]
	BiVO₄/Carbon-Coated Cu₂O nanowire		100 mW cm⁻²	CO/3.01 μmol g⁻¹h⁻¹	[218]
	Ni-CoTCPP/TiO₂ nanotube	hydrothermal and anodization	500 W Xe	CH₄/52.27 μmol cm^-2h⁻¹	[219]
	Cu₂O QDs/TiO₂ nanotubes (50 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CH₄/97%	[220]
	ZnO-Au-Titanium oxide nanotubes (0.25 g)	hydrothermal	UV light reactor equipped with eight (8w) light tubes (λ = 254 nm)	CH₃OH/	[221]
	ZnO-Au-Titanium oxide nanotubes (0.25 g)	hydrothermal		7777.1 μmol g^{− 1}h^{− 1}	[221]
	P-O linked g-C₃N₄/TiO₂-nanotubes (0.5 g)	solid sublimation and conversion followed by an impregnation method	Xe lamp	Acetic/46.9 ± 0.76 mg L⁻¹h⁻¹	[222]
				Methanol/38.2 ± 0.69 mg L⁻¹h⁻¹
				Formic acids/28.8 ± 0.64 mg L⁻¹h⁻¹
	FeOOH nanorod/PCN (25 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp with AM1.5 filter	CH₄ />85%	[223]
	Zn₂GeO₄ nanorod/ZIF-67 (150 mg)	deposition of Zn₂GeO₄ nanorod on highly crystalline ZIF-67	300 W Xe lamp	CH₃OH/5.15 μmol g⁻¹h⁻¹	[103]
	Zn₂GeO₄ nanorod/ZIF-67 (150 mg)	deposition of Zn₂GeO₄ nanorod on highly crystalline ZIF-67	300 W Xe lamp	C₂H₅OH/4.08 μmol g⁻¹h⁻¹	[103]
S-scheme	In₂S₃/Nb₂O₅ hybrid nanofiber (50 mg)	electrospinning followed by air annealing and solvothermal	simulated sunlight	CO/60.36 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[224]
	In₂S₃/Nb₂O₅ hybrid nanofiber (50 mg)	electrospinning followed by air annealing and solvothermal	(full spectrum)	CO/60.36 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[224]
	Fe-TiO_2‒_x/TiO₂ nanorod (3 mg)	surface modification approach	300 W Xe lamp	CO/122 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[225]
	Fe-TiO_2‒_x/TiO₂ nanorod (3 mg)	surface modification approach	300 W Xe lamp	CH₄/22 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[225]
	1D/2D g-C₃N₄ nanorods/CoAlLa-LDH	hydrothermal and calcination	35 W Xe lamp	CO/44.62 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[226]
	1D/2D g-C₃N₄ nanorods/CoAlLa-LDH	hydrothermal and calcination	35 W Xe lamp	CH₄/36.66 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[226]
	W₁₈O₄₉ ultrathin nanowires /CsPbBr₃	hot-injection	300 W Xe lamp with a power of 100 mW cm⁻² with a 420 nm cut-off filter	CO/143 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[227]
	(10 mg)	hot-injection		CO/143 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[227]
	C-In₂O₃ nanorods/W₁₈O₄₉ nanowire	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CO/135.82 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[228]
	(50 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CO/135.82 µmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[228]
	Ag/AgVO₃/TiO₂-nanowires (0.25 g)	hydrothermal	UV light	CH₃OH/9561.3 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[229]
	carbon dots anchored NiAl-LDH@In₂O₃hierarchical nanotubes (5 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp, AM1.5G	CO/7.121 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[230]
		hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp, AM1.5G	CH₄/9.769 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[230]
	hierarchical Bi₂MoO₆@In₂S₃ heterostructured nanotubes (30 mg)	solvothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CO/28.54 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[231]
		solvothermal	(≥ 420 nm)	CO/28.54 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[231]
	In₂O₃/Nb₂O₅ hybrid nanofibers (10 mg)	one-step electrospinning	300 W Xe arc lamp	CO/109.6 mmol g⁻¹ h^-1	[232]
	NiS@Ta₂O₅ hybrid nanofibers	electrospinning and Ion exchange method	500 W Xe lamp	CO/43.27 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[233]
	NiS@Ta₂O₅ hybrid nanofibers	electrospinning and Ion exchange method	500 W Xe lamp	CH₄/6.56 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[233]
	SnO₂ nanofibers/Cs₃Bi₂Br₉ (30 mg)	electrostatically self-assembling	300 W Xe lamp	CH₄/70%	[234]
	MCS(Mn_0.2Cd_0.8S)-wrapped MOF-BiOBr nanorods (50 mg)	hydrothermal	300 W Xe lamp	CO/60.59 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[235]
	MCS(Mn_0.2Cd_0.8S)-wrapped MOF-BiOBr nanorods (50 mg)	hydrothermal	(λ > 420 nm)	CO/60.59 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[235]
	CoTiO₃/Cd_9.51Zn_0.49S₁₀ nanowire (8 mg)	hydrothermal	Xenon lamp (equipped with 420 nm cut off filter)	CO/11 mmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[236]
	In₂O₃/Bi₁₉Br₃S₂₇ rod-like (50 mg)	calcination and solvothermal	300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	CO/28.36 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹	[237]

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1D-based nanostructures in photocatalytic CO₂ reduction

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