Recent advances in graded nanomaterial-based photocatalysts: Principles, designs, and applications

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(25)64825-X

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2025, Vol. 78: 75-99.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(25)64825-X

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Recent advances in graded nanomaterial-based photocatalysts: Principles, designs, and applications

Jiale Lv^a, Hailiang Chu^a^,^*(), Chunfeng Shao^b^,^*(), Lixian Sun^a, Graham Dawson^c, Kai Dai^b^,^*()

^aGuangxi Key Laboratory of Information Materials, Guangxi University Engineering Research Center of Hydrogen/Heat/Electricity-Related Energy Materials and Sensors, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, Guangxi, China
^bKey Laboratory of Green and Precise Synthetic Chemistry and Applications, Ministry of Education, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Pollutant Sensitive Materials and Environmental Remediation, Huaibei Normal University, Huaibei 235000, Anhui, China
^cDepartment of Chemistry and Materials Science, Xi’an Jiaotong Liverpool University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China

Received:2025-05-26 Accepted:2025-06-20 Online:2025-11-18 Published:2025-10-14
Contact: *E-mail: daikai940@chnu.edu.cn (K. Dai), chuhailiang@guet.edu.cn (H. Chu), shaocf@chnu.edu.cn (C. Shao).
About author:Hailiang Chu (School of Materials Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Electronic Technology) received his Ph.D. degree from Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2008. His research interests focus on the synthesis and application of high-performance electrode materials for secondary batteries and supercapacitors and high-capacity hydrogen storage materials, including alloys, metal borohydrides, metal-N-H materials, ammonia borane, and their derivatives.
Chunfeng Shao (Huaibei Normal University) received her Ph. D. from South China University of Technology in 2021. Her research interest is focused on the rational design and controllable synthesis of atomic-scale materials for applications in energy storage and catalysis. She has published more than 28 peer-reviewed papers, among which 20 are as the first author or corresponding author.
Kai Dai (Huaibei Normal University) was invited as a member of Youth or Editorial Board of Chinese Journal of Catalysis, Composite Functional Materials, Renewable and Sustainable Energy, Chinese Journal of Structural Chemistry and Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica. Prof. Kai Dai received his B.A. degree from Anhui University (China) in 2002, and Ph.D. degree from Shanghai University (China) in 2007. He worked in Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences at 2007, and then in Huaibei Normal University at 2010. He is Expert of special allowance from Anhui Provincial Government (2024), Distinguished Young Scholars Recipients of Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Province (2018) and head of Anhui Provincial Excellent research and innovation team in universities (2022) and Anhui Provincial Teaching Team (2019). He has also been invited by Xi’an Jiaotong Liverpool University to be a visiting Professor and PhD co-supervisor since 2022. His research interests mainly focus on semiconductor nanomaterials for solar energy conversion. He has published more than 170 peer-reviewed papers.
Supported by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China(22278169);Guangxi Science and Technology Program(AD25069070);Excellent Scientific Research and Innovation Team of Education Department of Anhui Province(2022AH010028);Anhui Provincial Quality Engineering Project(2022sx134)

Abstract

Abstract:

The rise in global energy demand and environmental pollution highlights the importance of developing efficient and stable photocatalytic materials to address the energy crisis and environmental issues. Graded nanomaterials exhibit significant promise for photocatalysis due to their unique structural advantages, including multi-scale pores, high specific surface area, and optimized electron transport pathways. This review systematically examines the design principles and synthesis methods for hierarchical nanomaterials and their photocatalytic performance. Through modulation of porous structures, hierarchical heterojunctions, and core-shell configurations, graded nanomaterials notably improve light absorption efficiency, carrier separation, and surface reaction activity of photocatalysts. Strategies such as S-scheme heterojunctions and interface engineering further enhance the performance of photocatalysts for CO₂ reduction, hydrogen production, and pollutant degradation. In situ characterization techniques offer dynamic insights into the photocatalytic mechanism. This study elucidates how hierarchical structures influence photocatalytic performance, discusses their potential applications in environmental treatment and clean energy, and proposes directions for future design and optimization of photocatalytic materials.

Key words: Hierarchical nanomaterials, Photocatalysis, S-scheme heterojunction, In-situ characterization, Charge separation

Jiale Lv, Hailiang Chu, Chunfeng Shao, Lixian Sun, Graham Dawson, Kai Dai. Recent advances in graded nanomaterial-based photocatalysts: Principles, designs, and applications[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2025, 78: 75-99.

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Figures/Tables 26

Fig. 2. (a) Effect of photocatalyst on activation energy. (b) General mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants in water.

Fig. 5. Advantages of graded nanomaterials.

Fig. 9. (a) Schematic of the synthesis of TT-COF/ZCS composites. (b) TEM image. Photocatalytic H2O2 production in O2 (c) and air (d) environments for TT-COF, ZCS, and TZ-40 (?? ≥ 420 nm) [78]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 13. Charge-transfer processes in an S-scheme heterojunction: prior to contact (a), after contact (b), photogenerated charge carrier transfer process (c) in S-scheme configuration.

Fig. 14. Synthesis methods of hierarchical nanostructures.

Fig. 15. (a) Degradation process of Rhodamine B by ultrasound-assisted TiO2 photocatalysis. (b) Impact of TiO2 addition on ultrasound degradation of Rhodamine B [139]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier. (c) The UV-visible diffuse reflection spectrum of the catalyst. (d) Photoluminescence spectroscopy [141]. Copyright 2025, Springer Nature.

Fig. 16. Projections of global plastic production: annual plastic production (a), annual plastic waste generation (b), and plastics in use (c) from 2000 to 2100 [148]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature.

Fig. 17. (a) Schematic of the photoinduced carrier transfer and the photocatalytic H2 and O2 evolution processes. (b) Water splitting efficiency of CdTe/V-In2S3 hybrids with varying CdTe quantum dot dimensions under AM1.5G sunlight (100 mW cm?2), employing 70 mg of photocatalyst with Pt/CoOx co-catalysts (1:1 CdTe:V-In2S3 ratio) [157]. Copyright 2023, Springer Nature.

Fig. 18. (a) Preparation process of ZnIn2S4/MOF-808. (b) UV-vis diffuse reflection spectra of various photocatalysts. Bandgap spectra (c), PL emission spectrum (d), and transient fluorescence spectrum (e) of MOF-808, ZIS, and ZM6-15% materials observed under 380 nm laser excitation [160]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Fig. 19. (a) Schematic of photoexcitation and charge decay pathway in a photocatalyst. (b) Schematic depiction of the photocatalytic system for H2O2 production [176]. Copyright 2020, John Wiley and Sons. Comparison of photocatalytic activities among different batches with error bars (c) and corresponding evolution rate of PHP over the respective catalysts under visible light irradiation (λ > 400 nm) (d) [14]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 20. (a) Schematic of the fundamental principles of photocatalysis. (b) Photogenerated carrier-migration pathway. (c) Carrier migration pathway in photosynthesis. (d) Carrier migration pathway in the S-scheme heterojunction system [180]. Copyright 2021, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 21. (a) Reaction mechanism for the photocatalytic oxidation of toluene on the Zr10Ti1-U6N-300@TiO2 [183]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (b) Energy diagrams of water-splitting photocatalysts [184]. Copyright 2023, Springer Nature. (c) Photocatalytic mechanism of CO? reduction, and (d) illustrates the electron transfer mechanism [185]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Fig. 23. Schematic of the synthesis (a) and structure design (b) of core-shell LCO with Al/Mg bulk co-doping (gray core) and gradient surface Ti doping (orange shell) [189]. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature.

Fig. 25. (a) XPS survey scan of pure and Ni-doped ZnO thin films [199]. Copyright 2016, Elsevier. (b) FTIR spectra [201]. Copyright 2014, John Wiley and Sons. (c) PXRD patterns of samples 1?9 solvated with DMF (op). (d) UV-vis spectra of samples 1?9 in the op form solvated with DMF [200]. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 26. (a) Schematic of an illumination environmental transmission electron microscope. (b) Schematic of the phase transformation from β to α reaction over a Pd cube under light irradiation [206]. Copyright 2018, Springer Nature. (c) Schematic representation of in situ SERS monitoring of photocatalytic reduction. (d) Raman spectra corresponding to photocatalytic degradation [204]. Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society.

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Recent advances in graded nanomaterial-based photocatalysts: Principles, designs, and applications

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