Unraveling structure-activity relationships in 2-D covalent organic frameworks for photocatalysis: From molecular engineering to high-performance optimization

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65021-8

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2026, Vol. 85: 47-87.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65021-8

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Unraveling structure-activity relationships in 2-D covalent organic frameworks for photocatalysis: From molecular engineering to high-performance optimization

Jiaying Liu^a, Yu Fang^a^,^b()

^a State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, Hunan, China
^b State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian, China

Received:2025-09-29 Accepted:2025-11-24 Online:2026-06-18 Published:2026-05-18
Contact: *E-mail: yu.fang@fjirsm.ac.cn (Y. Fang).
About author:Yu Fang (Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences) earned his M.S. degree in 2010 from Shanghai Jiao Tong University under the supervision of Professor Yong Cui, and his Ph.D. in 2014 from the University of Tokyo under the guidance of Professor Makoto Fujita. He then conducted postdoctoral research at the University of Tokyo (2014-2015) and later at Texas A&M University (2015-2019), where he worked with Professor Hong-Cai Zhou. In 2019, he returned to China to join the College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering at Hunan University as a full professor, before moving to his current position at the Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter (FJIRSM), Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2025.His research focuses on coordination-driven supramolecular self-assembly, with an emphasis on the rational design and synthesis of porous functional materials—such as porous coordination cages (PCCs), metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and covalent organic frameworks (COFs). He aims to precisely modulate the properties of these materials for applications in energy storage and conversion, catalysis, and biomedical science. Professor Fang has authored numerous publications in high-impact journals including Nature Communications, J. Am. Chem. Soc., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., with several papers recognized as Highly Cited. He also serves as a Youth Editorial Board Member for Chinese Chemical Lettersand holds several other academic roles.

Abstract

Abstract:

Faced with national fossil energy depletion and worsening environmental pollution, the shift to renewable energy is urgent. Solar energy, as a green and eco-friendly option, is converted into storable secondary energy to achieve carbon neutrality. Photocatalysts are key for this solar-to-secondary energy conversion, and two-dimensional covalent organic frameworks (2-D COFs) are highly promising candidates due to their large specific surface area, excellent stability, and flexible structural design. This paper comprehensively reviews the structural design of 2-D COFs, photocatalytic mechanisms, and the structure-function relationship. It also explores their applications in six fields: carbon dioxide reduction for carbon mitigation, uranium extraction from seawater for resource security, hydrogen peroxide synthesis as an eco-friendly alternative, organic transformation with high selectivity, and pollutant degradation for environmental improvement and hydrogen synthesis as a renewable energy. However, 2-D COFs face challenges in the photocatalytic field, including a limited light absorption range and relatively low charge separation efficiency. These issues hinder their full-scale application and performance optimization. Despite these obstacles, this study provides key insights and future directions for advancing 2-D COFs, aiming to inspire further research to overcome current limitations and unlock their full potential.

Key words: Photocatalyst, Two-dimensional porous materials, Covalent organic frameworks, Structure-activity relationship, Reaction mechanism

Jiaying Liu, Yu Fang. Unraveling structure-activity relationships in 2-D covalent organic frameworks for photocatalysis: From molecular engineering to high-performance optimization[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2026, 85: 47-87.

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Figures/Tables 26

Table 1 Summary of common 2-D COF linkage types.

Fig. 1. (A) COFs bearing azole linkages: Synthetic routes, D-π-A models, and variations. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [52]. Copyright 2023, Wiley. (B) The scheme for the synthesis of H-COF and ODA-COF. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [76]. Copyright 2022, Wiley.

Table 2 Design of topology diagrams and synthesis of trigonal COFs

Fig. 2. (A) The design of the three β-ketoenamine COFs with different linker lengths, transient photocurrents and comparison of conversions. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [42]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (B) Preparation routes of COFs, steady-state PL spectra of the COF samples, and photocatalytic H2O2 generation under O2 atmosphere in water. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [94]. Copyright 2024, Wiley.

Fig. 3. (A) Nonplanar CTC-COFs: Synthesis, CTC-COF-AB/AA crystal structure views (top/side/front), and optical properties (UV-vis DRS, fluores-cence spectra). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [103]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (B) TpbTfb-COF/TroTfb-COF: Synthetic schemes, localized charge distribution, eclipsed adjacent layer stacking, and spectro-scopic/photoelectric properties. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [105]. Copyright 2025, Wiley. (C) Synthesis and structure, time-dependent CO/H2 production, rate comparison, and CO yield/selectivity. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [104]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Table 3 Comparative analysis of structural design in COFs for enhanced photocatalytic performance.

Type	Catalyst	Connection	Yield/Activity	Light source
Linking mode regulation	TZ-COF	thiazole linking	3.82 μA·cm^-2; τ = 5.94 ps; 268 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	λ ≤ 800 nm
	OZ-COF	oxazole linking	1.26 μA·cm^-2; τ = 3.74ps; 220 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	λ ≤ 800 nm
	IZ-COF	imidazole linking	0.63 μA·cm^-2; τ = 1.8 ps; 102 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	λ ≤ 800 nm
	H-COF	imine bond	609 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂)	λ ≤ 450 nm
	ODA-COF	oxadiazole	2615 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂)	λ ≤ 800 nm
Pore structure regulation	TpPa-COF	β-ketoenamine COF, short linker	benzylamine oxidation yield 21%	λ ≤ 600 nm
	TpBD-COF	β-ketoenamine COF, medium linker	benzylamine oxidation yield 78%	λ ≤ 600 nm
	TpDT-COF	β-ketoenamine COF, long linker	benzylamine oxidation yield 61%	λ ≤ 600 nm
	COF-O	pore alkyl chains + O-substitution	τ = 1.5 ns; 15 μmol·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	λ ≤ 550 nm
	COF-C	pore alkyl chains	τ = 1.4 ns; 7.5 μmol·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	λ ≤ 550 nm
Interlayer stacking regulation	TroTfb-COF	Tro backbone with carbonyl (C=O)	τ = 0.91 ns; thioanisole oxidation yield: 98%	λ ≤ 800 nm
	TpbTfb-COF	no carbonyl modification	τ = 0.087 ns; thioanisole oxidation yield: 10%	λ ≤460 nm
	CTC-COF-AA	AA stacking	τ = 0.54 ns; 0.95 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂)	λ ≤600 nm
	CTC-COF-AB	AB stacking	τ = 3.42 ns; 113.6 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂)	λ ≤ 800 nm
	Co-SACs@COF-TzBpy	interlayer charge channels	8101 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO); sel.: 97.4%	λ ≤ 800 nm
	COF-TzBpy	no cobalt single atoms/channels	218 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	λ ≤ 800 nm
	JNM-7-AA	AA stacking	87% (CDC)	λ ≤ 1000 nm
	JNM-7-ABC	ABC stacking	1% (CDC)	λ ≤ 800 nm
	JNM-8-AA	AA stacking	99% (CDC)	λ ≤ 1000 nm
	JNM-8-ABC	ABC stacking	20% (CDC)	87% (CDC)

Fig. 4. (A-D) PXRD patterns of TAPB-TaBr2 COF synthesized in n-BuOH with variation of the water content, acid content, temperature, and time. (E) Optical microscopy images and photographs of TAPB-TaBr2 during synthesis in n-butanol or methanol at different points in time. The white bar is 1 mm. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [105]. Copyright 2024, Wiley.

Fig. 5. Comparison between COF synthesis methods and the conventional solvothermal method. (A) Conventional solvothermal synthetic approach. (B) The organic flux synthesis method. (C) Imide-linked COF monomers used in this study. (D) The structures of imide-linked COFs. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [109]. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature.

Fig. 6. Schematic of D-A TzPm-COF synthesis via microwave assistance. Reaction duration: seconds to minutes. Time dependent morphology of TzPm-COF synthesized in different time scale. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [112]. Copyright 2024, Wiley.

Fig. 7. (A) Ball-milling-assisted acid-catalyzed imine formation for the synthesis of COFs; experimental, Pawley-refined and simulated PXRD patterns (AA stacking) and difference plots. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [115]. Copyright 2025, The Royal Society of Chemistry. (B) Synthesis of COF and PXRD diffraction and space-filling model of TAPT-TA-COF and TAPT-BPA-COF. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [116]. Copyright 2025, Wiley.

Fig. 8. (A) Synthetic scheme of the room-temperature synthesis of vinyl-linked COFs and STM images of a 2D-SAMN. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [118]. Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society. (B) Schematic representation of the different DFTAPB-TFTA-COF polymorphs. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [119]. Copyright 2025, Wiley.

Fig. 9. (A) Synthetic routes of pristine/modified COFs, UV-vis DRS and Tauc plots. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [121]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (B) Synthetic scheme of COFs, UV-vis DRS and valence band XPS. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [122]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Fig. 10. (A) Three structurally functionalized COFs: design, synthesis, and investigations on decay kinetics, electron-hole distribution, and charge density difference of Br-, Me-, and Ph-COF. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [124]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (B) PXRD patterns of H-, COOH- and SO3H-COF, Zeta-potentials of H-, COOH- and SO3H-COF, PL spec-tra H-, COOH- and SO3H-COF with the excitation wavelength of 400 nm. TRPL decay curves. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [125]. Copyright 2024, Wiley. (C) Synthesis and structures schematics of catalysts, EIS spectra, TR-PL decay profiles and COF energy band schematic. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [126]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Fig. 11. (A) Schematic illustration of COOH-COF, TP-COF, and AOCOF, HAADF-STEM of Co-COF, Transient photocurrent responses of Co-COF, COOH-COF, TP-COF, and AOCOF, Normalized time-resolved PL decay curves. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [131]. Copyright 2025, Wiley. (B) Schematic illustration of synthesis of Cu3-BPY-COF(Ru/Co)-X and eclipsed AA stacking model of Cu3-BPY-COF(Ru/Co)-X. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [132,133]. Copyright 2025, Wiley.

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of structural design strategies for 2-D COFs aiming at enhancing photocatalytic properties.

Fig. 13. Schematic diagram depicting the fundamental mechanisms of photocatalysis within a single catalyst particle.

Fig. 14. Key steps and reactive species in photocatalytic mechanisms.

Fig. 15. Recent developments in COF-based photocatalysts for multiple photocatalytic reactions.

Fig. 16. (A) Construction and physicochemical attributes of the COF series (H, OH, 2OH): synthesis illustration, surface charge density derived from transient photocurrent and dipole moment. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [207]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (B) In-situ FT-IR spectra of CO2 photoreduction on Cu3-BPY-COF(Ru/Co)-2 and (Ru), and free energy of CO/CH4 pathway on Co/Cu catalytic sites. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [132]. Copyright 2025, Wiley. (C) COFs@Co’s ΔG profiles for CO2 photoreduction to CO and CO2 photoreduction mechanism. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [208]. Copyright 2025, Wiley.

Fig. 17. (A) Trinuclear Cu framework controllable synthesis scheme, U(VI) dark/visible-light removal ratios, and EPR spectra. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [209]. Copyright 2024, Wiley-VCH Verlag. (B) BTz/BT-COF AA-stacked PXRD patterns, steady-state fluorescence spectra post-photocatalysis with varied U(VI) concentrations, bare vs. U-captured BTz-COF transient photocurrent, and BTz-COF’s photocatalytic mechanism. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [211]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Fig. 18. (A) COFs’ real-space hole/electron distributions, electrostatic potential surface, free energy profile, PTHSO2-COF’s photocatalytic H2O2 syn-thesis via ORR pathways, and 2e- two-step ORR and 4e- WOR pathway diagrams. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [214]. Copyright 2025, Wiley. (B) Protonation of the COFs for H2O2 production (40 mL, 10 mg of COF), The performance of HITMS-COF-20H+ and HITMS-COF-21H+ compared with other representative photocatalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [66]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (C) Hirshfeld charge distribution of COF-BD1/BD2 (gray, blue, red, white spheres denote C, N, O, H atoms respectively), surface ESP maps of COF-BD1/BD2, in XPS spectra of COF-BD2, and in situ ESR spectra of the two COFs. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [215]. Copyright 2025, Wiley.

Fig. 19. (A) Suggested mechanism of C-H bond activation in this research. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [220]. Copyright 2023, Wiley. (B) Urea-COF/Biph-COF synthesis and characterization, Urea-COF PL spectra with/without DHAA, soaked Urea-COF vs. pristine Urea-COF/DHAA FT-IR spectra, and Urea-COF photocatalytic dihydroartemisinic ac-id-to-artemisinin conversion schematic. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [220]. Copyright 2025, Wiley.

Fig. 20. (A) Cu2+/COF-catalyzed β-lactam antibiotic photothermal hydrolysis-decarboxylation schematic, PG (C0 = 1 mmol·L-1)/PAA conc. PG (C0 = 0.1 mmol·L-1) degradation efficacy by Cu2+/COF, PG degradation rates of COF, Cu2+ and catalyst-free system, and PG degradation kinetics of Cu2+/COF dispersion. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [221]. Copyright 2023, National Academy of Sciences. (B) Photocatalytic NH4+ formation over as-prepared samples, Pd2+@Tp-TAPT photocatalytic NH4+ yield for cycling stability, its AQE in N2 fixation, control assays, post-N2-fixation 1H NMR spectra of reaction solutions, and in-situ FT-IR spectra. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [222]. Copyright 2024, Wiley.

Fig. 21. (A) Measured electronic band alignments of the acid-treated COF variants. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [241]. Copyright 2025, Wiley. (B) COF-JLUs UV-vis DRS spectra, Tauc plots, COF-JLU45 Mott-Schottky plots, COF-JLUs band structure schematic, their photocatalytic H2 evolution under visible light and AM 1.5, and COF-JLU45 photocata-lytic H2 evolution profiles with varied dosages. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [229]. Copyright 2025, Wiley. (C) The PL spectra results (λex = 420 nm) and photocatalytic performances of C2-COF and C2-COF-BF2. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [242]. Copyright 2025, Science China Press.

Table 4 Assessment of the catalytic efficacy of 2-D COF-based materials.

Catalyst	Light source	Yield/Activity	Τ (ns)
OH-COF	λ ≤ 600 nm	154 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	2.78
H-COF	λ ≤ 500 nm	37 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	1.04
2OH-COF	λ ≤ 650 nm	41 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	1.45
Cu₃-BPY-COF(Ru/Co)-2	400 ≤ λ ≤ 800 nm	31.5 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CH₄)	—
Cu₃-BPY-COF(Ru/Co)-1	400 ≤ λ ≤ 800 nm	9 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CH₄)	—
Cu₃-BPY-COF(Ru/Co)-3	400 ≤ λ ≤ 800 nm	14.3 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CH₄)	—
Cu₃-BPY-COF(Ru)	400 ≤ λ ≤ 800 nm	2.1 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CH₄)	—
COF-E@Co	λ ≤ 800 nm	21.74 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	0.2
COF-M@Co	λ ≤ 800 nm	≈14.2 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	—
COF-B@Co	λ ≤ 800 nm	≈13.4 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	—
COF-B	λ ≤ 800 nm	≈ 0 (CO)	0.28
COF-M	λ ≤ 800 nm	≈ 0 (CO)	0.38
COF-E	λ ≤ 800 nm	≈ 0 (CO)	0.32
Cu₃-PA-COF-AA	λ ≤ 800 nm	93.6%(U(VI))	3.96
Cu₃-PA-COF-ABC	λ ≤ 800 nm	42.0%(U(VI))	3.74
BTz-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	34.53 μmol·h^-1 (U(VI))	0.72
BT-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	2.85 μmol·h^-1 (U(VI))	0.58
PTH-SO₂-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	7755 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	1.57
PTH-S-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	1077 μmol·g^-1·h^-1(H₂O₂)	1.55
HITMS-COF-20H⁺	λ ≤ 750 nm	1957 μmol·g^-1·h^-1(H₂O₂)	—
HITMS-COF-20	λ ≤ 540 nm	452 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	0.66
HITMS-COF-21H⁺	λ ≤ 760 nm	1315 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	—
HITMS-COF-21	λ ≤ 550 nm	391 μmol·g^-1-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	0.37
COF-BD2	λ ≤ 8 00 nm	5211 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	4.14 ps
COF-BD1	λ ≤ 800 nm	3065 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	3.73 ps
Cu²⁺/Py-Bpy-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	1mmo·L^-1 antibiotic: complete hydrolysis (10 min)	2.57 ps
Pd²⁺@Tp-TAPT	λ ≤ 800 nm	10 × 10^-6 phenol: 99.9% degradation (15 min)	4.02
Tp-TAPT	λ ≤ 800 nm	10 × 10^-6 phenol: 99.9% degradation (58 min)	1.54
N-BT_F-ac	λ ≤ 800 nm	14.0 mmol·h^-1·g^-1 (H₂)	2.85
N-BT_H-ac	λ ≤ 800 nm	10.1 mmol h^-1·g^-1 (H₂)	2.40
C-BT_F-ac	λ ≤ 800 nm	6.8 mmol h^-1·g^-1 (H₂)	6.76
N-BT_2F-ac	λ ≤ 800 nm	8.0 mmol h^-1·g^-1 (H₂)	3.28
COF-JLU45	λ ≤ 800 nm	216.9 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂)	2.26
COF-JLU44	λ ≤ 800 nm	24.0 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂)	1.66
C2-COF-BF	λ ≤ 700 nm	20 μmol·h^-1·mg^-1 (H₂)	1.12
C2-COF	λ ≤ 600 nm	6.5 μmol·h^-1·mg^-1 (H₂)	0.9
NQ-COF E5-O	λ ≤ 800 nm	model reaction: 93%	4.1
NQ-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	model reaction: 14%	10.2
Urea-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	drug synthesis: 71%	—
Biph-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	drug synthesis: 9%	—

Table 4 Assessment of the catalytic efficacy of 2-D COF-based materials.

Catalyst	Light source	Yield/Activity	Τ (ns)
OH-COF	λ ≤ 600 nm	154 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	2.78
H-COF	λ ≤ 500 nm	37 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	1.04
2OH-COF	λ ≤ 650 nm	41 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	1.45
Cu₃-BPY-COF(Ru/Co)-2	400 ≤ λ ≤ 800 nm	31.5 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CH₄)	—
Cu₃-BPY-COF(Ru/Co)-1	400 ≤ λ ≤ 800 nm	9 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CH₄)	—
Cu₃-BPY-COF(Ru/Co)-3	400 ≤ λ ≤ 800 nm	14.3 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CH₄)	—
Cu₃-BPY-COF(Ru)	400 ≤ λ ≤ 800 nm	2.1 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CH₄)	—
COF-E@Co	λ ≤ 800 nm	21.74 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	0.2
COF-M@Co	λ ≤ 800 nm	≈14.2 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	—
COF-B@Co	λ ≤ 800 nm	≈13.4 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 (CO)	—
COF-B	λ ≤ 800 nm	≈ 0 (CO)	0.28
COF-M	λ ≤ 800 nm	≈ 0 (CO)	0.38
COF-E	λ ≤ 800 nm	≈ 0 (CO)	0.32
Cu₃-PA-COF-AA	λ ≤ 800 nm	93.6%(U(VI))	3.96
Cu₃-PA-COF-ABC	λ ≤ 800 nm	42.0%(U(VI))	3.74
BTz-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	34.53 μmol·h^-1 (U(VI))	0.72
BT-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	2.85 μmol·h^-1 (U(VI))	0.58
PTH-SO₂-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	7755 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	1.57
PTH-S-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	1077 μmol·g^-1·h^-1(H₂O₂)	1.55
HITMS-COF-20H⁺	λ ≤ 750 nm	1957 μmol·g^-1·h^-1(H₂O₂)	—
HITMS-COF-20	λ ≤ 540 nm	452 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	0.66
HITMS-COF-21H⁺	λ ≤ 760 nm	1315 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	—
HITMS-COF-21	λ ≤ 550 nm	391 μmol·g^-1-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	0.37
COF-BD2	λ ≤ 8 00 nm	5211 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	4.14 ps
COF-BD1	λ ≤ 800 nm	3065 μmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂O₂)	3.73 ps
Cu²⁺/Py-Bpy-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	1mmo·L^-1 antibiotic: complete hydrolysis (10 min)	2.57 ps
Pd²⁺@Tp-TAPT	λ ≤ 800 nm	10 × 10^-6 phenol: 99.9% degradation (15 min)	4.02
Tp-TAPT	λ ≤ 800 nm	10 × 10^-6 phenol: 99.9% degradation (58 min)	1.54
N-BT_F-ac	λ ≤ 800 nm	14.0 mmol·h^-1·g^-1 (H₂)	2.85
N-BT_H-ac	λ ≤ 800 nm	10.1 mmol h^-1·g^-1 (H₂)	2.40
C-BT_F-ac	λ ≤ 800 nm	6.8 mmol h^-1·g^-1 (H₂)	6.76
N-BT_2F-ac	λ ≤ 800 nm	8.0 mmol h^-1·g^-1 (H₂)	3.28
COF-JLU45	λ ≤ 800 nm	216.9 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂)	2.26
COF-JLU44	λ ≤ 800 nm	24.0 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 (H₂)	1.66
C2-COF-BF	λ ≤ 700 nm	20 μmol·h^-1·mg^-1 (H₂)	1.12
C2-COF	λ ≤ 600 nm	6.5 μmol·h^-1·mg^-1 (H₂)	0.9
NQ-COF E5-O	λ ≤ 800 nm	model reaction: 93%	4.1
NQ-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	model reaction: 14%	10.2
Urea-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	drug synthesis: 71%	—
Biph-COF	λ ≤ 800 nm	drug synthesis: 9%	—

Fig. 22. Schematic diagram of the future outlook for 2-D COFs.

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Unraveling structure-activity relationships in 2-D covalent organic frameworks for photocatalysis: From molecular engineering to high-performance optimization

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