Single atom-based catalysts for electrochemical CO2 reduction

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(21)64000-7

Abstract

Abstract:

Electrochemical CO₂ reduction reaction (CO₂RR), powered by renewable energy, emerges as a promising approach against environmental issues and energy crisis by converting CO₂ into value-added chemicals. Single atom catalysts (SACs) with isolated metal atoms dispersed on supports exhibit outstanding performance for CO₂ electroreduction, because of their strong single atom-support interactions, maximum metal utilization and excellent catalytic activity. However, SACs suffer from agglomeration of particles, low metal loading, and difficulty in large-scale production. In addition, molecular catalysts as another single atom-based catalyst, consisting of ligands molecules connected to metal ions, exhibited similar metal-nitrogen (M-N) active centers as that in metal-nitrogen-carbon (M-N-C) SACs, which were highly active to CO₂ reduction due to their well-defined active sites and tunability over the steric and electronic properties of the active sites. Nonetheless, molecular catalysts are challenged by generally moderate activity, selectivity and stability, poor conductivity and aggregation. Many works have been devoted to overcoming these issues of SACs and molecular catalysts for efficient CO₂RR, but only limited reviews for systematic summary of their fabrication, application, and characterizations, which were highlighted in this review. Firstly, we summarize recent advanced strategies in preparing SACs for CO₂RR, including wet-chemistry approaches (defect engineering, spatial confinement, and coordination design), other synthetic methods and large-scale production of SACs. Besides, electrochemical applications of SACs and molecular catalysts on CO₂RR are discussed, which involved the faradaic efficiency and partial current density of the desired product as well as the catalyst stability. In addition, ex-situ and in-situ/operando characterization techniques are briefly assessed, benefiting probing the active sites and understanding the CO₂RR catalytic mechanisms. Finally, future directions for the development of single atom-based catalysts (SACs, molecular catalysts) are pointed out.

Key words: CO₂ electroreduction, Wet-chemistry approach, Single atom catalyst, Molecular catalyst, In-situ characterization

Qian Sun, Chen Jia, Yong Zhao, Chuan Zhao. Single atom-based catalysts for electrochemical CO₂ reduction[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2022, 43(7): 1547-1597.

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URL: https://www.cjcatal.com/EN/10.1016/S1872-2067(21)64000-7

https://www.cjcatal.com/EN/Y2022/V43/I7/1547

Figures/Tables 20

Table 1 Standard potentials of CO2 reaction in aqueous solutions (V vs. SHE) at 1.0 atm and 25 °C, calculated according to the standard Gibbs energies of the reactants in reactions.

Half-cell reaction	Standard potentials (V vs. SHE)
2H⁺ + 2e^- → H₂	-0.42
CO₂ + 2H⁺ + 2e^-→ HCOOH	-0.61
CO₂ + 2H⁺ + 2e^- → CO + H₂O	-0.52
CO₂ + 4H⁺ + 4e^- → HCHO + H₂O	-0.51
CO₂ + 6H⁺ + 6e^- → CH₃OH + H₂O	-0.38
CO₂ + 8H⁺ + 8e^- → CH₄ + 2H₂O	-0.24
2CO₂ + 12H⁺ + 12e^- → C₂H₄ + 4H₂O	-0.34
2CO₂ + 12H⁺ + 12e^- → C₂H₅OH + 3H₂O	-0.33
CO₂ + e^- → CO₂*^-	-1.9

Fig. 1. Recently reported central metal atoms and coordination atoms in SACs for CO2RR.

Fig. 2. Defect engineering strategy to prepare SACs for CO2RR. (a) Illustration for the synthesis of Ni-N3-V. Reprinted from Ref. [59] with permission. Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (b) Scheme showing the synthesis of Ni-N-MEGO. Reprinted from Ref. [36] with permission. Copyright 2018, Elsevier B.V. (c) Schematic illustration of transforming multiwalled CNTs into Fe-N/CNT@GNR. (d) Structural evolution from CNTs to CNT@GNR to GNR by adjusting KMnO4:CNT mass ratios. (e) TEM images for Fe-N/CNT (e1), Fe-N/CNT@GNR-1 (e2), Fe-N/CNT@GNR-2 (e3), FeN/CNT@GNR-3 (e4), and Fe-N/GNR (e5). Scale bar: 100 nm. (c?e5) Reprinted from Ref. [62] with permission. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. (f) Schematic illustration for the formation and structures of Ni-SAs@FNC and Ni-NPs@NC. (g) Calculated Gibbs free energy diagrams for CO2-to-CO conversion on different catalysts. (h) The difference between the calculated limiting potentials for CO2 reduction and H2 evolution. (f?h) Reprinted from Ref. [63] with permission. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 3. Spatial confinement strategy to prepare SACs for CO2RR. (a) Scheme of the formation of Ni SAs/N-C. Reprinted from Ref. [16] with permission. Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. (b) Schematic views of the fabrication of Ni5-PTF-1000 catalyst with atomically isolated nickel sites from PTFZnNi5 via spatial sites separation strategy (top) and the Ni100-PTF-1000 with Ni NPs from PTF-Ni100 (bottom). Reprinted from Ref. [66] with permission. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. (c) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of M-N-C catalysts. Reprinted from Ref. [67] with permission. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (d) Schematic preparation illustration of CoPc©Fe-N-C. Reprinted from Ref. [68] with permission. Copyright 2019, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (e) High resolution STEM image of Co-HNC. (f) HAADF-STEM images of Co-HNC. Part of Co single atoms is marked with red circles. (g) Top-view and side-view of CO2 molecule adsorbed on Co-C2N2 sites with different configurations. (e?g) Reprinted from Ref. [71] with permission. Copyright 2018, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

Fig. 4. Coordination strategy to prepare SACs for CO2RR. (a) Materials model and a schematic local structure. Reprinted from Ref. [77] with permission. Copyright 2017, Springer Nature. (b) Scheme for the synthesis of Ni SAs/NCNTs. Reprinted from Ref. [79] with permission. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. (c) Synthetic route towards single-atom FeN4 and FeN5 catalysts. Reprinted from Ref. [73] with permission. Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (d) Schematic illustration to prepare Co-N5/HNPCSs. Reprinted from Ref. [58] with permission. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (e) The formation process of Co-N4 and Co-N2. Reprinted from Ref. [87] with permission. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

Fig. 5. Other strategies to prepare SACs for CO2RR. (a) Scheme of the formation of H-CPs. (b) Cross-sectional view SEM of H-CPs. (a,b) Reprinted from Ref. [93] with permission. Copyright 2018 Elsevier Inc. (c) The transformation of Ni NPs into Ni single atoms (SAs). (d) aberration corrected high-angle annular dark-field scanning TEM atomic image (the white dashed circles indicate the pores which are produced by Ni NPs during the thermal diffusion process). (c,d) Reprinted from Ref. [94] with permission. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (e) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process of Sn modified N-doped carbon nanofiber electrocatalysts for HCOOH and CO production. (f) SEM image of Sn-CF1000 composite. (e,f) Reprinted from Ref. [25] with permission. Copyright 2018, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

Fig. 6. Large-scale synthesis of SACs for CO2RR. (a) The universal synthesis procedure. Metal single-atom catalysts (M-SACs) are prepared in two steps. Reprinted from Ref. [105] with permission. Copyright 2019, Nature. (b) Schematic of Synthetical Procedure of Ni-NCB. Reprinted from Ref. [106] with permission. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. (c) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of Ni-SA/NC. Reprinted from Ref. [108] with permission. Copyright 2020, Elsevier Ltd. (d) Synthesis procedure of CuSAs/THCF: I, adsorption of Cu ions; II, electrospinning of polymer fibers; III, carbonization and etching. Reprinted from Ref. [110] with permission. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. (e) Scheme illustration for large-scale synthesis of the single-atom Snδ+ on N-doped graphene. Reprinted from Ref. [111] with permission. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

Table 2 Summary of the performances of metal SACs for CO2RR toward CO.

Material		Electrolyte	Cell		E/V vs. RHE			FE/%		j/(mA cm^-2)			Stability/h	Ref.
NiSA-NWC		0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	H-cell		-1.6 vs. Ag/AgCl			95		15 mA cm^-2 @-2 V vs. Ag/AgCl			2	[133]
Ni/NCTs-50		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.6, -1.0			98		34.3 mA cm^-2 @-1 V			20	[122]
Ni_SA-N₂-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			98		—			10	[134]
Ni-N-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.5, -0.9			90		56 mA cm^-2 @-1 V			—	[149]
Ni-PACN		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.7, -1.1			> 95		21 mA cm^-2 @-1.1 V			—	[131]
Ni-N-CNSs		0.1mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.85			97.1		3.1			25	[125]
Ni-N-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.9			71.9		10.48			60	[16]
Ni-N₄-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.81			99		28.6			—	[17]
Ni-N₄-CNT		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.9			97		57.1			30	[79]
Ni-N-C		1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.73			98		~71			0.2	[65]
Ni-N-CNT		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.7			91.3		23.5			—	[80]
Ni-N-MEGO		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.7			92.1		26.8			21	[36]
Ni-N-Graphene		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.68			92		10.2			—	[126]
Ni-N-Gr		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			90		—			5	[130]
SANi-GO		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.63			96.5		8.3			50	[128]
Ni-NG		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.62			95		~11			20	[8]
A-Ni-NSG		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			~90		22.5 mA cm^-2 @-0.72 V			100	[72]
Ni-CNT-CC		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.65			99		32.3			100	[180]
Ni-CNT-CONH		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.65			98		18.6			—	[180]
Ni-CNT-PP		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.65			96		13.4			—	[180]
Ni-N-RGO		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			97		5 mA cm^-2 @-0.71 V			—	[129]
Ni-SA-NCs		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			99		50 mA cm^-2 @-1 V			9	[137]
Ni-NCB		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.681			~99		74			24	[106]
Ni-N-C		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.78			85		—			—	[77]
Ni-SAC		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-1.2			98.9		—			20	[105]
Ni_SA-N₂-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			98		—			10	[134]
NiSA-NGA		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			90.2		—			6	[132]
Ni-N₃-V		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.9			90		65			14	[59]
NiSA/PCFM		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.7			96		56.1 mA cm^-2 @-1 V			120	[138]
A-Ni-NSG		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.5			97		—			100	[181]
NiN-GS		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			93		—			—	[182]
SANi-GO		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.63			96.5		8.3			50	[128]
Ni SAC		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.65			95.2		>15			8	[123]
Ni_IMP/NC₉₂₃		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.6			82		—			—	[26]
NiNOMC		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.9			93.3		31.55 mA cm^-2 @-1.30 V			10	[136]
SE-Ni SAs@PNC		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-1			88		18.3			60	[94]
Ni-N-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.77			92		∼7.5			12	[78]
Ni-N		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.6			82		—			5	[26]
SA-Ni/N-CS		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			95.1		—			24	[114]
Ni-N-C		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			94		4.6 mA cm^-2 @-0.9 V			—	[116]
Ni-SAC		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.9			95		—			30	[127]
NiNPIC		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.54			95.1		10.2			24	[135]
Ni/NC		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.69			92.3		4 mA cm^-2 @-0.8 V			9	[119]
NiNG-S		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			97		40.3 mA cm^-2 @-0.9 V			2000 s	[183]
SA-NiNG-NV		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			96		32.5 mA cm^-2 @-1 V			20	[184]
NiPS₃		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			95		7.8			16	[185]
Ni-N-C Fe-N-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell H-cell		∼-0.6 V -0.4, -0.5			> 95 > 90		11 10 mA cm^-2 @-0.7 V			— —	[186] [186]
Materials	Electrolyte			Cell		E/V vs. RHE			FE/%		j/(mA cm^-2)	Stability/h			Ref.
Fe-N/CNT@GNR	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.65			96		22.6	5			[62]
Fe/ZIF-8	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.73			85		3.7	2			[85]
Fe-SA/NCS-X	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.45			87		10.48 mA cm^-2 @-0.89 V	10			[145]
C-AFC©ZIF-8	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.43			93		10	—			[84]
Fe-N-C	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			91		7.5	6			[143]
Fe_xN@Fe-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.53			95		4.71	24			[21]
Fe-N₄-graphene	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			~80		~2.5	10			[144]
Fe-N-C	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			85		5	—			[158]
Fe-N-PC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.49			∼90		11.44	24			[27]
Fe-CN	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.5			94		—	12			[140]
Fe-N₅	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.46			97		—	24			[73]
Fe-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.53			95		1.9	—			[142]
Fe-N-C	0.1 mol/L Na₂SO₄			H-cell		-0.6			90		2.5	6			[141]
Fe-N₄/CF	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.5			94.9		—	60			[70]
Fe-N₄-C	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.58			93		2.8	20			[67]
Fe-SA	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.58			90		—	—			[146]
Fe-N-C	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-1 V vs. NHE			80		—	—			[187]
Fe-SAC/NPC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		overpotential 0.23 V			97		5	24			[188]
Fe-CON₄₀₀-400	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.58 to -0.87			100		10.23 mA cm^-2 @-0.83 V	12 h @-0.83 V			[189]
H₂-FeN₄/C	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			97		—	24			[190]
Co-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-1			80		72	—			[149]
Co-N₂-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.52			94		18.1	60			[87]
Co-N₂-carbon spheres	0.2 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.73, -0.79			99		6.2	10			[58]
Co@CoNC900	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			58		~10 mA cm^-2 @-0.8 V	12			[148]
Cu-N₂/GN	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.5			81		10 mA cm^-2@-0.75 V	10			[150]
Cu-S₁N₃/Cu_x	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.65			100		3.3	—			[191]
Cu-APC	0.2 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.78			92		18.74 mA cm^-2 @-0.98 V	3			[192]
Sn-NOC	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.7			94		13.9	8			[193]
Sn/N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			91		1.75	24			[25]
Cu₂₀Sn₁	Catholyte: 0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ Anolyte: 1 mol/L KOH			H-cell		-1			95.3		12.5	10			[194]
ZnN₄	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.43			95		4.8	75			[24]
Bi SAs/NC	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.5			97		3.9	4			[161]
Sb-NC	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.9			82		2.4	24			[162]
Y₁/NC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.58			88.3		1.05 mA cm^-2 @-0.78 V	12			[163]
Sc₁/NC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.68			81.3		1.43 mA cm^-2 @-0.78 V	12			[163]
Ag₂-G	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.7			93.4		11.87	36			[92]
Ag₁-N₃/PCNC	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.37			95		7.6 mA cm^-2 @-0.55 V	40			[176]
Ni-Zn-N₆-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.8			99		≈20.23 mA cm^-2 at -0.9 V	28			[195]
Ni/Fe-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.7			98		9.5	30			[76]
(Cl,N)-Mn/G (Cl,N)-Mn/G (Cl,N)-Mn/G (Cl,N)-Mn/G (Cl,N)-Mn/G (Cl,N)-Mn/G	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 0.5 mol/L KCl 0.5 mol/L Na₂SO₄ 0.5 mol/L K₂SO₄			H-cell H-cell H-cell H-cell H-cell H-cell		-0.6 -0.5 -0.7 -0.5 -0.6 -0.6			97 94 90 95 ~95 95		9.2 9.4 12.3 — — —	12 12 12 12 12 12			[196] [196] [196] [196] [196] [196]
Materials	Electrolyte			Cell			E/V vs. RHE		FE/%		j/(mA cm^-2)	Stability/h				Ref.
Fe₁-Ni₁-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell			-0.5		96.2		2.4	10				[197]
A-Ni@CMK	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell			-0.7		95		51 mA cm^-2 @-0.8 V	10				[198]
NiSAs/FN-CNSs	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell			-0.8		99.8		36.1 mA cm^-2 @-1.1 V	50				[109]
Mg-C₃N₄	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell			-1.178		≥90		32	4.2				[199]
ZrO₂@Ni-NC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell Flow cell			-0.3 -1.58		98.6 96.8		15.6 mA cm^-2 @-1 V 200	12 h @-1 V 3				[200]
Ni-N-C	1 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow-cell			-0.81		~85		200	10				[139]
A-Ni@CMK	1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			-0.5		100		366 mA cm^-2 @-0.8 V	5				[198]
Mg-C₃N₄	1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			—		≥90		300	4.2				[199]
Ni-N/C	1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			-0.9		89.3		447.6 mA cm^-2 @-1 V vs. RHE	6 h @-1 V vs. RHE				[201]
CNNi-700	1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			-0.93		97		223	120				[202]
CA/N-Ni aerogel	1 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-0.8		98		273	12				[203]
Ni-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 1 mol/L KOH 3 mol/L KI + 1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell Flow cell Flow cell			-0.93 -0.61 -0.51		97 93 98		152 67 206	17 h @-0.75 V 17 h @-0.75 V 17 h @-0.75 V				[120]
Ni-N-Graphene shell	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-0.76		~97		~60	20				[95]
H-CPs	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-1.2		90.8		60.11	40				[93]
CoSA/HCNFs	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-0.9		92		211	50				[96]
Fe³⁺-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-0.45		90		94	12				[157]
Ni-N-C	1 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-1		~90		>200	20 h @700 mA/cm²				[139]
Ni-N_4‒_xC_x active sites	1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			~-0.25		99.4		300	6 h @100 mA/cm²				[204]
SA Ni-NC	0.1 mol/L KOH + 0.5 mol/L K₂(SO)₄			Flow cell			-1.15		~ 100		170	—				[205]
NiSAs/FN-CNSs	Catholyte: 2.0 mol/L KHCO₃ Anolyte: 2.0 mol/L glycerol in 2.0 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			2.2		~90		175 mA cm^-2 @2.5 V	400				[109]
NiSA/PCFM	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-1.2 -1.1		83 88		336.5 308.4	120 h @-1 V				[138]
Ni-SA-NCs	—			MEA			-2.9 3		99		~300 380	9 h @-2.6 V				[137]
Ni-N-C	0.5 mol/L KOH			MEA			3		>94		225	—				[120]
Ni-N/C	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			MEA			-3		100		299.1	—				[206]
Fe/Cu-N-C	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			Electrochemical hydrogen pump reactor			-0.8		99.2		12.91	60				[207]

Table 2 Summary of the performances of metal SACs for CO2RR toward CO.

Material		Electrolyte	Cell		E/V vs. RHE			FE/%		j/(mA cm^-2)			Stability/h	Ref.
NiSA-NWC		0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	H-cell		-1.6 vs. Ag/AgCl			95		15 mA cm^-2 @-2 V vs. Ag/AgCl			2	[133]
Ni/NCTs-50		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.6, -1.0			98		34.3 mA cm^-2 @-1 V			20	[122]
Ni_SA-N₂-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			98		—			10	[134]
Ni-N-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.5, -0.9			90		56 mA cm^-2 @-1 V			—	[149]
Ni-PACN		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.7, -1.1			> 95		21 mA cm^-2 @-1.1 V			—	[131]
Ni-N-CNSs		0.1mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.85			97.1		3.1			25	[125]
Ni-N-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.9			71.9		10.48			60	[16]
Ni-N₄-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.81			99		28.6			—	[17]
Ni-N₄-CNT		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.9			97		57.1			30	[79]
Ni-N-C		1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.73			98		~71			0.2	[65]
Ni-N-CNT		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.7			91.3		23.5			—	[80]
Ni-N-MEGO		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.7			92.1		26.8			21	[36]
Ni-N-Graphene		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.68			92		10.2			—	[126]
Ni-N-Gr		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			90		—			5	[130]
SANi-GO		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.63			96.5		8.3			50	[128]
Ni-NG		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.62			95		~11			20	[8]
A-Ni-NSG		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			~90		22.5 mA cm^-2 @-0.72 V			100	[72]
Ni-CNT-CC		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.65			99		32.3			100	[180]
Ni-CNT-CONH		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.65			98		18.6			—	[180]
Ni-CNT-PP		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.65			96		13.4			—	[180]
Ni-N-RGO		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			97		5 mA cm^-2 @-0.71 V			—	[129]
Ni-SA-NCs		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			99		50 mA cm^-2 @-1 V			9	[137]
Ni-NCB		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.681			~99		74			24	[106]
Ni-N-C		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.78			85		—			—	[77]
Ni-SAC		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-1.2			98.9		—			20	[105]
Ni_SA-N₂-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			98		—			10	[134]
NiSA-NGA		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			90.2		—			6	[132]
Ni-N₃-V		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.9			90		65			14	[59]
NiSA/PCFM		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.7			96		56.1 mA cm^-2 @-1 V			120	[138]
A-Ni-NSG		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.5			97		—			100	[181]
NiN-GS		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			93		—			—	[182]
SANi-GO		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.63			96.5		8.3			50	[128]
Ni SAC		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.65			95.2		>15			8	[123]
Ni_IMP/NC₉₂₃		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.6			82		—			—	[26]
NiNOMC		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.9			93.3		31.55 mA cm^-2 @-1.30 V			10	[136]
SE-Ni SAs@PNC		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-1			88		18.3			60	[94]
Ni-N-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.77			92		∼7.5			12	[78]
Ni-N		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.6			82		—			5	[26]
SA-Ni/N-CS		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			95.1		—			24	[114]
Ni-N-C		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			94		4.6 mA cm^-2 @-0.9 V			—	[116]
Ni-SAC		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.9			95		—			30	[127]
NiNPIC		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.54			95.1		10.2			24	[135]
Ni/NC		0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.69			92.3		4 mA cm^-2 @-0.8 V			9	[119]
NiNG-S		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			97		40.3 mA cm^-2 @-0.9 V			2000 s	[183]
SA-NiNG-NV		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			96		32.5 mA cm^-2 @-1 V			20	[184]
NiPS₃		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell		-0.8			95		7.8			16	[185]
Ni-N-C Fe-N-C		0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell H-cell		∼-0.6 V -0.4, -0.5			> 95 > 90		11 10 mA cm^-2 @-0.7 V			— —	[186] [186]
Materials	Electrolyte			Cell		E/V vs. RHE			FE/%		j/(mA cm^-2)	Stability/h			Ref.
Fe-N/CNT@GNR	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.65			96		22.6	5			[62]
Fe/ZIF-8	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.73			85		3.7	2			[85]
Fe-SA/NCS-X	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.45			87		10.48 mA cm^-2 @-0.89 V	10			[145]
C-AFC©ZIF-8	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.43			93		10	—			[84]
Fe-N-C	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			91		7.5	6			[143]
Fe_xN@Fe-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.53			95		4.71	24			[21]
Fe-N₄-graphene	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			~80		~2.5	10			[144]
Fe-N-C	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			85		5	—			[158]
Fe-N-PC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.49			∼90		11.44	24			[27]
Fe-CN	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.5			94		—	12			[140]
Fe-N₅	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.46			97		—	24			[73]
Fe-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.53			95		1.9	—			[142]
Fe-N-C	0.1 mol/L Na₂SO₄			H-cell		-0.6			90		2.5	6			[141]
Fe-N₄/CF	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.5			94.9		—	60			[70]
Fe-N₄-C	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.58			93		2.8	20			[67]
Fe-SA	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.58			90		—	—			[146]
Fe-N-C	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-1 V vs. NHE			80		—	—			[187]
Fe-SAC/NPC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		overpotential 0.23 V			97		5	24			[188]
Fe-CON₄₀₀-400	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.58 to -0.87			100		10.23 mA cm^-2 @-0.83 V	12 h @-0.83 V			[189]
H₂-FeN₄/C	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			97		—	24			[190]
Co-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-1			80		72	—			[149]
Co-N₂-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.52			94		18.1	60			[87]
Co-N₂-carbon spheres	0.2 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.73, -0.79			99		6.2	10			[58]
Co@CoNC900	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			58		~10 mA cm^-2 @-0.8 V	12			[148]
Cu-N₂/GN	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.5			81		10 mA cm^-2@-0.75 V	10			[150]
Cu-S₁N₃/Cu_x	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.65			100		3.3	—			[191]
Cu-APC	0.2 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.78			92		18.74 mA cm^-2 @-0.98 V	3			[192]
Sn-NOC	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.7			94		13.9	8			[193]
Sn/N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.6			91		1.75	24			[25]
Cu₂₀Sn₁	Catholyte: 0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ Anolyte: 1 mol/L KOH			H-cell		-1			95.3		12.5	10			[194]
ZnN₄	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.43			95		4.8	75			[24]
Bi SAs/NC	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.5			97		3.9	4			[161]
Sb-NC	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃			H-cell		-0.9			82		2.4	24			[162]
Y₁/NC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.58			88.3		1.05 mA cm^-2 @-0.78 V	12			[163]
Sc₁/NC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.68			81.3		1.43 mA cm^-2 @-0.78 V	12			[163]
Ag₂-G	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.7			93.4		11.87	36			[92]
Ag₁-N₃/PCNC	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.37			95		7.6 mA cm^-2 @-0.55 V	40			[176]
Ni-Zn-N₆-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.8			99		≈20.23 mA cm^-2 at -0.9 V	28			[195]
Ni/Fe-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell		-0.7			98		9.5	30			[76]
(Cl,N)-Mn/G (Cl,N)-Mn/G (Cl,N)-Mn/G (Cl,N)-Mn/G (Cl,N)-Mn/G (Cl,N)-Mn/G	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 0.5 mol/L KCl 0.5 mol/L Na₂SO₄ 0.5 mol/L K₂SO₄			H-cell H-cell H-cell H-cell H-cell H-cell		-0.6 -0.5 -0.7 -0.5 -0.6 -0.6			97 94 90 95 ~95 95		9.2 9.4 12.3 — — —	12 12 12 12 12 12			[196] [196] [196] [196] [196] [196]
Materials	Electrolyte			Cell			E/V vs. RHE		FE/%		j/(mA cm^-2)	Stability/h				Ref.
Fe₁-Ni₁-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell			-0.5		96.2		2.4	10				[197]
A-Ni@CMK	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell			-0.7		95		51 mA cm^-2 @-0.8 V	10				[198]
NiSAs/FN-CNSs	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell			-0.8		99.8		36.1 mA cm^-2 @-1.1 V	50				[109]
Mg-C₃N₄	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell			-1.178		≥90		32	4.2				[199]
ZrO₂@Ni-NC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 1 mol/L KHCO₃			H-cell Flow cell			-0.3 -1.58		98.6 96.8		15.6 mA cm^-2 @-1 V 200	12 h @-1 V 3				[200]
Ni-N-C	1 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow-cell			-0.81		~85		200	10				[139]
A-Ni@CMK	1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			-0.5		100		366 mA cm^-2 @-0.8 V	5				[198]
Mg-C₃N₄	1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			—		≥90		300	4.2				[199]
Ni-N/C	1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			-0.9		89.3		447.6 mA cm^-2 @-1 V vs. RHE	6 h @-1 V vs. RHE				[201]
CNNi-700	1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			-0.93		97		223	120				[202]
CA/N-Ni aerogel	1 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-0.8		98		273	12				[203]
Ni-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃ 1 mol/L KOH 3 mol/L KI + 1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell Flow cell Flow cell			-0.93 -0.61 -0.51		97 93 98		152 67 206	17 h @-0.75 V 17 h @-0.75 V 17 h @-0.75 V				[120]
Ni-N-Graphene shell	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-0.76		~97		~60	20				[95]
H-CPs	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-1.2		90.8		60.11	40				[93]
CoSA/HCNFs	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-0.9		92		211	50				[96]
Fe³⁺-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-0.45		90		94	12				[157]
Ni-N-C	1 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-1		~90		>200	20 h @700 mA/cm²				[139]
Ni-N_4‒_xC_x active sites	1 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			~-0.25		99.4		300	6 h @100 mA/cm²				[204]
SA Ni-NC	0.1 mol/L KOH + 0.5 mol/L K₂(SO)₄			Flow cell			-1.15		~ 100		170	—				[205]
NiSAs/FN-CNSs	Catholyte: 2.0 mol/L KHCO₃ Anolyte: 2.0 mol/L glycerol in 2.0 mol/L KOH			Flow cell			2.2		~90		175 mA cm^-2 @2.5 V	400				[109]
NiSA/PCFM	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃			Flow cell			-1.2 -1.1		83 88		336.5 308.4	120 h @-1 V				[138]
Ni-SA-NCs	—			MEA			-2.9 3		99		~300 380	9 h @-2.6 V				[137]
Ni-N-C	0.5 mol/L KOH			MEA			3		>94		225	—				[120]
Ni-N/C	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			MEA			-3		100		299.1	—				[206]
Fe/Cu-N-C	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃			Electrochemical hydrogen pump reactor			-0.8		99.2		12.91	60				[207]

Table 3 Summary of the performances of metal SACs for CO2RR toward other products.

Materials	Electrolyte	Cell	E/V vs. RHE	Main product (FE/%)	j/(mA cm^-2)	Stability/h	Ref.
Cu-N-C-900	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell	-1.6	CH₄ [38.6]	14.8	10	[29]
PTF(Ni)/Cu	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃+ 0.1 mol/L KCl	H-cell	-1.1	C₂H₄ [57.3]	3.1	11	[208]
20% Cu/CuSiO₃	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell	-1.1	C₂H₄ [51.8]	20.20	6	[209]
CuSAs/TCNFs	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell	-0.9	CH₃OH [44]	93	50	[110]
Cu-CeO₂-4%	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell	-1.8	CH₄ [~58]	~56	2.2	[39]
Cu9Ag1NWs	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell	-1.17	CH₄ [72]	—	—	[210]
Sn₁/V_o-CuO-90	[Bmim]BF₄/H₂O (molar ratio 1:3)	H-cell	-2.0 V vs. Ag/Ag⁺	CH₃OH [88.6]	67	36	[211]
In-N-C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell	-0.65	HCOOH [96]	8.87	60	[160]
Sn-N-C	0.25 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell	-1.6 V_SCE	HCOOH [74.3]	11.7	200	[111]
Sb-N₄	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell	-0.8	HCOOH [94]	—	10	[159]
Mo@NG	4 mol% EmimBF₄ + 96 mol% H₂O	H-cell	-1.4	HCOOH [~28]	105 mA cm^-2 @ -0.6 V	8.3	[166]
Pb₁Cu	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell	-0.72	HCOOH [95.7]	6.4	—	[212]
Cu-SA/NPC	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	H-cell	-0.36	CH₃COCH₃ [36.7]	—	—	[213]
M-AuPd	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	two-component PEEK cell	-0.25	HCOOH [99]	6.5	1	[214]
Pb₁Cu	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	Flow cell	-0.8	HCOOH [96]	1200 mA cm^-2 @-1.15 V	20 h @ 500 mA cm^-2	[212]
Cu SAC	1 mol/L KOH	Flow cell	-1.5	CH₄ [81]	340.2	—	[215]
Cu-Al	1 mol/L KOH	Flow cell	—	C₂H₄ [80]	480	—	[216]
Ag_0.14/Cu_0.86	1 mol/L KOH	Flow cell	-0.67	C₂H₅OH [41]	103.5	2	[217]
Cu-N-C	0.1 mol/L CsHCO₃	Flow cell	-1.2	C₂H₅OH [55]	16.2	—	[30]
Cu/p-Al₂O₃	1 mol/L KOH	Flow cell	-1.2	CH₄ [62]	153	—	[218]
Cu-N-5%-400	1 mol/L KOH	Flow cell	-0.9	CH₄ [42]	100 mA cm^-2 @-1 V	3	[74]
Pb₁Cu	solid electrolyte	MEA	-3.86	HCOOH [~94]	375	180 h @-3.45 V	[212]

Fig. 7. Electrochemical performances of M-N-C SACs for CO2RR. (a) FEs of CO at different applied potentials on SE-Ni SAs@PNC, Ni NPs@NC, NC, Ni NPs@C, and Ni SAs@NC electrocatalysts. (b) TOFs, partial CO current density plots (green represents the results for the Ni SAs@NC catalyst, a black arrow points to a representation of this catalyst). (a,b) Reprinted from Ref. [94] with permission. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (c) Faradaic efficiency of the H-M-G catalyst. Reprinted from Ref. [73] with permission. Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (d) CO partial current density versus different potentials applied. Reprinted from Ref. [84] with permission. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. H2/CO ratio with applied potential (e) and FECO (f) for Co@CoNC-800, Co@CoNC-900, and Co@CoNC-1000 in CO2-saturated 0.1 mol/L KHCO3. Reprinted from Ref. [148] with permission. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. (g) Faradaic efficiencies of all products at CuSAs/TCNFs. Reprinted from Ref. [110] with permission. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. (h) Partial current densities of CO on the catalysts under different potentials. Reprinted from Ref. [92] with permission. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (i) Electrochemical stability test measured at -0.6 V vs. RHE for Pd/C (black) and Pd-NC (green). Reprinted from Ref. [91] with permission. Copyright 2020, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

Fig. 8. Electrochemical performances of noble metal SACs for CO2RR. (a) CO FEs and current densities at different potentials for Cu97Sn3. Reprinted from Ref. [219] with permission. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. (b) Mass activities of Pd/C, M-Pd, and M-AuPd(20) at -0.25 V vs. RHE for 1 h. Reprinted from Ref. [214] with permission. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. FE (c) and stability test (d) of 20% Cu/CuSiO3. (e) Optimized model representing Cu0-Cu+ sites and inset shows Bader charge for Cu0-Cu+ sites. (c-e) Reprinted from Ref. [209] with permission. Copyright 2021, John Wiley and Sons. (f) Faradaic efficiencies (bars, left y-axis) and deep reduction products current density (jdrp, red curves, right y-axis) of Cu-CeO2-4% at different overpotentials. The deep reduction products were the first five products in the legends at the bottom, marked with a red line. (g) Left y-axis: stability of FECH4 (blue squares) and FEH2 (black squares). Right y-axis: total current density (jtotal) of Cu-CeO2-4% at -1.8 V (red curves, right y-axis). (f,g) Reprinted from with Ref. [39] permission. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (h) The FECO at different applied potentials with 6 h electrolysis. (i) Tafel plots for CO production. (h,i) Reprinted from Ref. [102] with permission. Copyright 2019, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

Table 4 Summary of the performances of molecular catalysts for CO2RR.

Materials	Electrolyte	E/V vs. RHE	Main product [FE/%]	j/mA cm^-2	Stability/h	Ref.
Al₂(OH)₂TCPP-Co	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.7	CO [76]	1	7	[221]
COF-367-Co	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.67	CO [90]	1.8	24	[226]
TAPP(Co)-B18C6-COF	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.7	CO [93.3]	9.45 mA cm^-2 @-1 V	30	[274]
Cu-MOF (HKUST1)	1 mol/L KOH	-1.07	C₂H₄ [45]	262	—	[223]
Cu-Tph-COF-Dct	1 mol/L KOH	-0.9	CH₄ [~80]	220	5	[275]
[Cu₄ZnCl₄(btdd)₃]	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-1.2 -1.3	CH₄ [92] CH₄ [88]	9.8 18.3	—	[276]
ZIF-8^SO4	0.5 mol/L NaCl	-1.8 V vs. SCE	CO [65.5]	—	4	[220]
CoPc	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.73	CO [96]	—	6	[241]
HKUST-1	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.16	CH₄ [27]	4.4	—	[154]
Cu-Pc		-1.06	CH₄ [66]	13
[Cu(cylam)]Cl₂		-1.26	CH₄ [15]	2.8
Por Zn (ZnTMsP)	0.1 mol/L TBAP₆/DMF/H₂O	-1.7 V vs. SHE	CO [95]	2.1	4	[253]
Mn(bipyridyl)(CO)₃Br carbonyl	0.1 mol/L CH₃CN + TBAP	-1.7	CO [85]	0.06	22	[277]
Mn(bpy)(CO)₃Br	0.2 mol/L Bu₄NBF₄/MeCN + 2 mol/L Et₃N + 2 mol/L iPrOH 0.2 mol/L Bu₄NBF₄/MeCN + 2 mol/L Et₂NH + 2 mol/L iPrOH	-1.96 V vs. Fc⁺/Fc	HCOOH [71 ± 5] CO [50 ± 0.3]	— —	— —	[278]
[Fe₄N(CO)₁₂]^-	KHCO₃/HCO₃^-	-1.2 V vs. SCE	HCOOH [96]	4	24	[279]
PCN-222(Fe)/C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.6	CO [91]	1.15	10	[280]
Fe_MOF-525	1 mol/L TBAP₆/CH₃CN	-1.3 V vs. NHE	CO [54]	2.3	4	[222]
FeTDHPP	DMF + 2 mol/L H₂O	-1.16 V vs. NHE	CO [94]	0.31	4	[232]
CAT_pyr-CNT	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-1.03 V vs. NHE	CO [93]	~0.6	3	[233]
Fe-TPP-CNT	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.35 V vs. SCE	CO [64]	0.9	4	[234]
Co-TPP-CNT	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.35 V vs. SCE	CO [91]	3.2	4	[234]
CoTPP	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.6	CO [95]	—	—	[252]
CoTPP-cov	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.05 V vs. NHE	CO [81]	4.7	24 h @-1.1 V	[281]
CoFPC (perfluorinated cobalt phthalocyanine)	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.8	CO [93]	~4.2	12	[235]
Co-Pc-CN/CNT (3%)	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.63	CO [98]	15	—	[46]
Co-Pc/CNT (2.5%)	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.63	CO [92]	10	10	[46]
CoPPcCNT	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.61	CO [90]	20	24	[242]
CoPP@CNT	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.49	CO [98.3]	25.1	12 h @-0.6 V	[267]
CoPc + CoPc-A	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.79	CO [91.5]	197 A mg^-1 @-0.89 V	30	[255]
CoPc	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.73	CO [96]	—	6	[241]
Co(L^4-)	1.5 mol/L TFE	-2.75 V vs. Fc/Fc⁺	CO [99.7]	—	—	[282]
Co(PDI-PyCH₃⁺I^-)	acetonitrile with 11 mol/L water	-1.95 V vs. Fc^+/0	CO [>95]	—	—	[283]
Cu₃(HITP)₂	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃ 1 mol/L KOH	-1.37 -0.85	C₂H₄ [70] C₂H₄ [53]	37.4 mA cm^-2 @-1.67 V 305 mA cm^-2 @-0.93 V	10 10	[284]
Por Cu	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.676	CO [10]	—	—	[285]
		-0.976	CH₄ [27]	13.2
		-0.976	C₂H₄ [17]	8.4
Crystalline CuPc	catholyte 0.5 mol/L KCl anolyte 3.0 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.40 V vs. SHE	C₂H₄ [25]	2.8	3	[155]
RuPc/NPC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.07 V vs. NHE	C₂H₅OH [27.5]	—	3	[286]
[Re(NH₂-bpy)]	ACN/TBAPF₆	-2.2 V vs. Fc⁺/Fc	CO [92 ± 6]	15 mA cm^-2 @-2.5 V vs. Fc⁺/Fc	—	[249]
Re-SURMOF	0.1 mol/L TBAH acetonitrile solution + 5% trifluoroethanol	-1.6 V vs. NHE	CO [93 ± 5]	> 2	2	[287]
Mn(bipyridine)-pyrene	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.1 V vs. SHE	CO [34 ± 4]	1.5	—	[288]
AgDAT/C	1 mol/L KOH	-1.5 V vs. Ag/AgCl	CO [>90]	95 mA cm^-2	—	[254]

Table 4 Summary of the performances of molecular catalysts for CO2RR.

Materials	Electrolyte	E/V vs. RHE	Main product [FE/%]	j/mA cm^-2	Stability/h	Ref.
Al₂(OH)₂TCPP-Co	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.7	CO [76]	1	7	[221]
COF-367-Co	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.67	CO [90]	1.8	24	[226]
TAPP(Co)-B18C6-COF	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.7	CO [93.3]	9.45 mA cm^-2 @-1 V	30	[274]
Cu-MOF (HKUST1)	1 mol/L KOH	-1.07	C₂H₄ [45]	262	—	[223]
Cu-Tph-COF-Dct	1 mol/L KOH	-0.9	CH₄ [~80]	220	5	[275]
[Cu₄ZnCl₄(btdd)₃]	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-1.2 -1.3	CH₄ [92] CH₄ [88]	9.8 18.3	—	[276]
ZIF-8^SO4	0.5 mol/L NaCl	-1.8 V vs. SCE	CO [65.5]	—	4	[220]
CoPc	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.73	CO [96]	—	6	[241]
HKUST-1	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.16	CH₄ [27]	4.4	—	[154]
Cu-Pc		-1.06	CH₄ [66]	13
[Cu(cylam)]Cl₂		-1.26	CH₄ [15]	2.8
Por Zn (ZnTMsP)	0.1 mol/L TBAP₆/DMF/H₂O	-1.7 V vs. SHE	CO [95]	2.1	4	[253]
Mn(bipyridyl)(CO)₃Br carbonyl	0.1 mol/L CH₃CN + TBAP	-1.7	CO [85]	0.06	22	[277]
Mn(bpy)(CO)₃Br	0.2 mol/L Bu₄NBF₄/MeCN + 2 mol/L Et₃N + 2 mol/L iPrOH 0.2 mol/L Bu₄NBF₄/MeCN + 2 mol/L Et₂NH + 2 mol/L iPrOH	-1.96 V vs. Fc⁺/Fc	HCOOH [71 ± 5] CO [50 ± 0.3]	— —	— —	[278]
[Fe₄N(CO)₁₂]^-	KHCO₃/HCO₃^-	-1.2 V vs. SCE	HCOOH [96]	4	24	[279]
PCN-222(Fe)/C	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.6	CO [91]	1.15	10	[280]
Fe_MOF-525	1 mol/L TBAP₆/CH₃CN	-1.3 V vs. NHE	CO [54]	2.3	4	[222]
FeTDHPP	DMF + 2 mol/L H₂O	-1.16 V vs. NHE	CO [94]	0.31	4	[232]
CAT_pyr-CNT	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-1.03 V vs. NHE	CO [93]	~0.6	3	[233]
Fe-TPP-CNT	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.35 V vs. SCE	CO [64]	0.9	4	[234]
Co-TPP-CNT	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.35 V vs. SCE	CO [91]	3.2	4	[234]
CoTPP	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.6	CO [95]	—	—	[252]
CoTPP-cov	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.05 V vs. NHE	CO [81]	4.7	24 h @-1.1 V	[281]
CoFPC (perfluorinated cobalt phthalocyanine)	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.8	CO [93]	~4.2	12	[235]
Co-Pc-CN/CNT (3%)	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.63	CO [98]	15	—	[46]
Co-Pc/CNT (2.5%)	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.63	CO [92]	10	10	[46]
CoPPcCNT	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.61	CO [90]	20	24	[242]
CoPP@CNT	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.49	CO [98.3]	25.1	12 h @-0.6 V	[267]
CoPc + CoPc-A	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃	-0.79	CO [91.5]	197 A mg^-1 @-0.89 V	30	[255]
CoPc	0.1 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.73	CO [96]	—	6	[241]
Co(L^4-)	1.5 mol/L TFE	-2.75 V vs. Fc/Fc⁺	CO [99.7]	—	—	[282]
Co(PDI-PyCH₃⁺I^-)	acetonitrile with 11 mol/L water	-1.95 V vs. Fc^+/0	CO [>95]	—	—	[283]
Cu₃(HITP)₂	0.1 mol/L KHCO₃ 1 mol/L KOH	-1.37 -0.85	C₂H₄ [70] C₂H₄ [53]	37.4 mA cm^-2 @-1.67 V 305 mA cm^-2 @-0.93 V	10 10	[284]
Por Cu	0.5 mol/L NaHCO₃	-0.676	CO [10]	—	—	[285]
		-0.976	CH₄ [27]	13.2
		-0.976	C₂H₄ [17]	8.4
Crystalline CuPc	catholyte 0.5 mol/L KCl anolyte 3.0 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.40 V vs. SHE	C₂H₄ [25]	2.8	3	[155]
RuPc/NPC	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.07 V vs. NHE	C₂H₅OH [27.5]	—	3	[286]
[Re(NH₂-bpy)]	ACN/TBAPF₆	-2.2 V vs. Fc⁺/Fc	CO [92 ± 6]	15 mA cm^-2 @-2.5 V vs. Fc⁺/Fc	—	[249]
Re-SURMOF	0.1 mol/L TBAH acetonitrile solution + 5% trifluoroethanol	-1.6 V vs. NHE	CO [93 ± 5]	> 2	2	[287]
Mn(bipyridine)-pyrene	0.5 mol/L KHCO₃	-1.1 V vs. SHE	CO [34 ± 4]	1.5	—	[288]
AgDAT/C	1 mol/L KOH	-1.5 V vs. Ag/AgCl	CO [>90]	95 mA cm^-2	—	[254]

Fig. 9. Electrochemical performance of molecular catalysts for CO2RR. (a) Faradaic efficiencies for ZIF-8SO4. (b) Total current density and Faradic efficiency of CO in CPE at @1.8 V for ZIF-8SO4 in CO2-saturated NaCl (0.5 mol/L). (a,b) Reprinted from Ref. [220] with permission. Copyright 2017 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (c) Current densities per milligram of cobalt in the different COF catalysts under an applied potential of -0.67 V vs. RHE in 0.5 mol/L aqueous potassium bicarbonate buffer. Reprinted from Ref. [228] with permission. Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. (d) TOFCO at -0.73 V vs. RHE. (e) Faradaic efficiency for CO and H2 production at -0.73 V vs. RHE. Electroreduction experiments were performed in 0.1 mol/L NaHCO3 for 1 h and repeated at least 3 times for each loading. (d,e) Reprinted from Ref. [241] with permission. Copyright 2018, American chemical society. (f) Putative interfacial free energy diagrams for electrodes modified with conjugated RuII surface sites. The diagram denotes the Fermi level of the electrode, EF, and the redox potential of the molecule, E(RuIII/II), upon varying the applied potential. The electrostatic potential across the electrochemical double layer is indicated by the red dotted line. Reprinted from Ref. [251] with permission. Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. (g) Faradaic efficiencies of CO2 reduction products in the gas phase for CoPc/CNT(2.5%) (red) and CoPc (blue) at various potentials. Reprinted from Ref. [46] with permission. Copyright 2017, Springer Nature. (h) Current density and FE measurements over 10 h of FePGF/CFP (neutral pH) at -0.54 V vs. RHE. Reprinted from Ref. [269] with permission. Copyright 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (i) Summarized double-layer capacitance of CoIIPc, CoIIPc-tsGQ, CoIIPc-GQTG, CoIIPc-dp(AT), CoIIPc-polyA, and CoIIPc-polyT at -2.1 V vs. RHE. (h,i) Reprinted from Ref. [261] with permission. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

Fig. 10. (a) Characterizations without in situ/operando. Aberration-corrected HAADF-STEM observation for Fe1-Ni1-N-C (inset: 3D atom-overlapping Gaussian-function fitting map of region 6 in panel. Reprinted from Ref. [197] with permission. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. XPS spectra of N 1s (b) and Sn 3d (c) of Sn-NOC. (b,c) Reprinted from Ref. [193] with permission. Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH GmbH. (d) The 57Fe Mössbauer transmission spectra measured at 50 K for FeSAs/CNF-900. Reprinted from Ref. [327] with permission. Copyright 2020, Elsevier B.V. (e) XANES spectra at the Co K-edge (inset is the magnified image) of Co foil, Co3O4 and CoSA/HCNFs. (f) Fitting for EXAFS data of CoSA/HCNFs, inset is the Co-N4 structure. (e,f) Reprinted from Ref. [96] with permission. Copyright 2020, Elsevier Ltd. (g) WT-EXAFS spectra of Fe(Cp)2, FePc, N2-FeN4/C, and H2-FeN4/C. Reprinted from Ref. [190] with permission. Copyright 2021, Elsevier Inc.

Fig. 11. In situ Raman characterizations for catalysts. Raman spectra of Ni-TAPc collected on an Au electrode at various potentials (vs. RHE) in 0.5 mol/L KHCO3 aqueous solution at room temperature under an atmosphere of Ar (1 atm) (a) and CO2 (1 atm) (b). (a,b) Reprinted from Ref. [335] with permission. Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. Raman spectra from 400 to 2200 cm-1 for Ag/Zr-fcu-MOF-BDC (c) and Ag/Zr-fcu-MOF-NH2BDC (d). Magnified Raman spectra from 1800 to 2200 cm-1 for Ag/Zr-fcu-MOF-BDC (e) and Ag/Zr-fcu-MOF-NH2BDC (f). (c-f) Reprinted from Ref. [336] with permission. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 12. In situ ATR-IR characterizations for catalysts. (a) In situ ATR-IR of PyNiPc/CNT at -0.78 V vs. RHE in gradually CO2-saturated 0.5 mol/L KHCO3 using Ar-saturated 0.5 mol/L KHCO3 as background. (b) The proposed reaction pathways of ECR over PyNiPc/CNT. (a,b) Reprinted from Ref. [256] with permission. Copyright 2019, Elsevier B.V. (c,d) In situ ATR-FTIR spectra of Cu4II-MFU-4l collected at -1.2 V vs. RHE in CO2-saturated 0.5 mol/L NaHCO3 electrolyte. (c,d) Reprinted from Ref. [276] with permission. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. (e) Potential dependent (vs. SHE) difference spectra of Mnpyr in aqueous KHCO3 (0.5 mol/L) under argon and at room temperature with the reference spectrum recorded at 0 V (fully oxidized conditions) prior to each measurement. (f) ATR IR difference spectra of the reoxidation of Mnpyr at different potentials (vs. SHE, reference spectrum recorded at Eappl = -1.0 V). (e,f) Reprinted from Ref. [288] with permission. Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 14. Operando 57Fe Mössbauer characterization. (a) Operando 57Fe Mössbauer spectra of 57Fe-enriched Fe-NC-S recorded at OCV, -0.3, -0.6, -0.9 V (vs., RHE), and after CO2RR (AFT) in CO2-saturated 0.5 mol/L KHCO3 solution. (b) Current-time response of 57Fe enriched Fe-NC-S for CO2RR (the electrolyte of CO2-saturated 0.5 mol/L KHCO3 was exchanged at every certain time interval to maintain the pH of the solution). (c) Content of different Fe moieties and reactive intermediates obtained from operando 57Fe Mössbauer measurements in CO2-saturated 0.5 mol/L KHCO3 solution. Reprinted from Ref. [339] with permission. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 15. Operando XAS characterizations for catalysts. (a) Normalized Fe K-edge XANES spectra of Fe-NC-S recorded under different Ar- and CO2-saturated conditions. (b) Normalized operando Fe K-edge XANES spectra. (c) FT magnitudes of EXAFS spectra of Fe-NC-S at various biases (vs. RHE) in CO2-saturated 0.5 mol/L KHCO3 solution. (d) Coordination numbers of Fe-N and Fe-C in Fe-NC-S obtained from the fitting results of the operando EXAFS spectra. The insets of (a-c) show the enlarged spectra. Reprinted from Ref. [339] with permission. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 16. Schematic illustration of future developments of single atom-based catalysts for CO2RR.

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Single atom-based catalysts for electrochemical CO₂ reduction

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