Recent advances in the preparation of glycolic acid by selective electrocatalytic oxidation of ethylene glycol

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(25)64710-3

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2025, Vol. 73: 79-98.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(25)64710-3

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Recent advances in the preparation of glycolic acid by selective electrocatalytic oxidation of ethylene glycol

Jie Chen, Jing Li(), Zidong Wei()

School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China

Received:2024-12-19 Accepted:2025-02-19 Online:2025-06-18 Published:2025-06-20
Contact: *E-mail: lijing@cqu.edu.cn (J. Li),zdwei@cqu.edu.cn (Z. Wei).
About author:Jing Li received her Bachelor's degree from Tianjin University in 1999 and earned her PhD from the National University of Singapore in 2008. Following her postdoctoral research at Fudan University (2008-2011), she became an Associate Professor at Tongji University (2011-2012). She then served as a Research Scientist at Singapore's Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE) from 2012 to 2014. Since 2014, Dr. Li has held the position of Full Professor at Chongqing University's School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, where her research focuses on electrocatalysis, organic electrosynthesis, and chemical energy conversion.
Zidong Wei (School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University) has been invited to serve as an associate editor for the 6^th Editorial Board of Chin. J. Catal. Prof. Zidong Wei earned his Ph.D. in applied chemistry from Tianjin University in 1994 and joined Chongqing University in June 1997. From 2010 to 2021, he served as the Dean of School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering. He was honored as a Chungkung Professor by the Ministry of Education of China in 2009. Currently, he is the Director of the National Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Chemical Process Intensification at Chongqing University. His research focuses on chemical energy conversation, electrocatalysis, electrosynthesis, advanced chemical power and water electrolysis, combining experimental investigations with theoretical simulation. He has published over 300 peer-reviewed papers and holds more than 40 Chinese invention patents. His work has been cited over 23,000 times. Additionally, he is the author of two books: Electrochemical Catalysis, and Electrocatalysis of Oxygen Reduction Reaction.
Supported by:
National Key Research and Development Program of China(2022YFA1504200);National Natural Science Foundation of China(22279012)

Abstract

Abstract:

Ethylene glycol (EG) is a biomass derivative of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and its electrocatalytic conversion into high-value chemicals has sparked widespread interest. This study reviews the most recent research development in electrocatalysis-based EG to glycolic acid (GA) conversion. Firstly, the strategies and research results of modulating the electronic structure of catalysts for efficient selective GA production from EG are reviewed. Second, by reviewing the data of in-situ Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and in-situ electrochemically attenuated total reflection surface enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy, the reaction pathway and catalytic mechanism of EG partial oxidation to GA were clarified. Finally, the design and regulation of catalysts for selective oxidation of EG by electrocatalysis in the future are prospected.

Key words: Electrocatalysis, Ethylene glycol, Glycolic acid, Ethylene glycol oxidization reaction, Noble metal catalyst

Jie Chen, Jing Li, Zidong Wei. Recent advances in the preparation of glycolic acid by selective electrocatalytic oxidation of ethylene glycol[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2025, 73: 79-98.

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Figures/Tables 20

Fig. 1. The illustration of EG electrocatalytic upgrade to produce commercial chemicals.

Fig. 2. Statistics of the studies related to EG-to-GA in the past five years. Note: Statistics as of mid-September 2024.

Table 1 The EG-to-GA performances of recently reported electrocatalysts.

Synthesis strategy	Catalysts	Electrolyte	Working potential (V) (mA cm^-2)	Chronoamperometric stability	FE (%)	Ref.
Alloy	PdAg/NF	0.5 mol L^-1 KOH + 1 mol L^-1 KOH	0.57 (10)	60% (3600 s)	92% (0.91)	[13]
	Pd₁Ag₁ NP	1 mol L^-1 EG + 1 mol L^-1 KOH	—	83% (3600 s)	—	[20]
	Pt₁Mo₁/C	0.5 mol L^-1 KOH + 0.5 mol L^-1 EG	—	70% (1200 s)	—	[21]
	PdCu MC	1 mol L^-1 KOH + PET hydrolysate	—	—	93.6% (0.83)	[22]
	Pd₆₇Ag₃₃	1 mol L^-1 KOH + 1 mol L^-1 EG	0.53 (10)	83.8% (3600s)	92.7% (1.0)	[23]
	PdB	1 mol L^-1 KOH + 1 mol L^-1 EG	0.65 (100)	62.39% (7200)	93.8% (0.7)	[24]
	PdCuene/NF	1 mol L^-1 KOH + 1 mol L^-1 EG	0.67 (100)	—	92% (0.82)	[25]
	Co-Ni/CP	1 mol L^-1 KOH + 1 mol L^-1 EG	1.23 (10)	—	>90% (1.42)	[26]
Single-atom	Pd-N₄/Cu-N₄	1 mol L^-1 KOH + 1 mol L^-1 EG	—	10% (21600 s)	86% (1.0V)	[27]
Heteroatom-doped	Pt/SePC	1 mol L^-1 KOH + 0.1 mol L^-1 EG	—	82.6% (20 h)	—	[28]
Interface engineering	Pd/NiMoO₄/NF	1 mol L^-1 NaOH + 1 mol L^-1 EG	0.79 (100)	—	95.7% (1.0)	[29]
	Pd-CuCo₂O₄/NF	1 mol L^-1 NaOH + 0.5 mol L^-1 NaCl + 1 mol L^-1 EG	0.80 (200)	35% (12 h)	96.1% (0.9)	[30]
	Pd-Ni(OH)₂/NF	1 mol L^-1 KOH + 1 mol L^-1 EG	0.89 (100)	85% (3600 s)	94.1% (1.0)	[31]
	Au/Ni(OH)₂	3 mol L^-1 KOH + 0.3 mol L^-1 EG	1.1 (603.4)	—	96% (1.4)	[12]
	PtMn/MCM-41	0.3 mol L^-1 EG	—	—	—	[32]
	Pt-Ni(OH)₂/NF	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + 0.1 mol L^-1 EG	0.69 (100)	56.8% (5 h)	93% (1.0)	[33]
	Pt/𝛾-NiOOH/NF	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + 0.3 mol L^-1 EG	0.55 (100)	—	97% (0.55)	[34]
	PtRh_0.02@Rh	0.1 mol L^-1 KOH +0.5 mol L^-1 EG	—	—	—	[35]
	Pt/Ir hetero-metallene	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + 0.1 mol L^-1 EG	0.75 (100)	—	87% (1.0)	[36]

Fig. 3. SEM (a) and TEM (b) images of PdAg/NF. (c) LSV curves of PdAg/NF. (d) 1H NMR spectra of the electrolyte before and after 2 h anodic ethylene glycol oxidation on a PdAg/NF. (e) Faradic efficiencies (FEs) of PdAg/NF for glycolic-acid production. (f) Stability test of PdAg/NF. (g) Crystal orbital Hamiltonian population analysis of intermediate adsorbed on Pd (111) and PdAg (111) surfaces. (h) Illustration of adsorption energy of intermediates on Pd (111) and PdAg (111). The green atoms are palladium and the blue atoms are silver. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [13]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier Inc.

Fig. 4. (a) A scheme illustrating the synthesis of bimetallic PdCu MC nanozymes. SEM (b,c) and TEM (d,e) images of PdCu MC. (f) 1H NMR spectra of PETHOR products and (g) summarized FEGA and GA yield rates over PdCu MCs (green: FA; gray: TPA; purple: maleic acid; orange: GA; yellow: EG) at various potentials. 1H NMR spectra of PETHOR products (h) and summarized FEFA and FA yield rates (i) over PdCu MCs in OCP and a high potential range. (j) A scheme illustrating the two-electrode coupling system by PdCu MC nanozymes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [22]. Copyright 2024, Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Fig. 5. (a) Schematic diagram for preparing the mPd3Au/NF. SEM (b,c) and HRTEM (d) images of Pd3Au film. (e) LSV curves of mPd3Au/NF. (f) 1H NMR spectra of PET hydrolysate. (red: EG, purple: GA, yellow: maleic acid, blue: TPA, green: formic acid). (g) GA yield and FEGA for mPd3Au/NF. (h) PDOS of d bands of Pd for Pd3Au and Pd. (i) Charge density differences for *NO3 and *C2H6O2 adsorbed on Pd3Au. Yellow and blue denote charge accumulation and depletion regions, respectively. The COHP plots of (j) *NO3 and (k) *OC-CH2OH adsorbed on Pd3Au (111) and Pd (111) surfaces. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44]. Copyright 2024, Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Fig. 6. Projected density of states (PDOS) of Pd (a) and PdB (b). (c) Calculated adsorption energies of *OH and *EG on the surface of Pd and PdB. (d) Calculated adsorption energies of *CO and *COCH2OH on the surface of Pd and PdB. (e) Schematic illustration of the preparation for Pd aerogel and PdB alloy aeroge. (f) TEM of PdB. (g) HRTEM of PdB. (h) Mass-normalized EGOR CV profiles of the various electrocatalysts at a scan rate of 50 mV s-1 measured in 1 mol L-1 EG and 1 mol L-1 KOH. (i) LSV curves over PdB in 1 mol L-1 KOH with and without EG. (j) Chronoamperometric tests at 0.9 V versus RHE for 7200 s. (k) Potential dependent FEs for GA measured on Pd and PdB. (l) 1H NMR spectra of anodic electrolyte and (m) corresponding EG consumption, GA yield, and FEGA during electrolysis over PdB as a function of time for chronoamperometric tests at 0.9 V. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [24]. Copyright 2024 Wiley-VCH Gmbh.

Fig. 7. (a) Schematic diagram of the pro-cess for electrocatalytic preparation of GA from EG. The EGOR reaction pathways over Co/Ni-CP. SEM (b) and HRTEM (c) images of Co-Ni/CP. (d) Schematic diagram of the reaction process. (e) Comparison of the adsorption energy of EG on different catalysts. (f) Gibbs free energy diagrams for EG-to-GA oxidation on Co/CP, Ni/CP and Co-Ni/CP. (g) FEs at different voltages during EGOR. (h) LSV curves of EGOR-HER system and OER-HER system. (i) Stability testing of Co-Ni/CP. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [26]. Copyright 2024 Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Fig. 8. (a) The schematic diagram shows the synthesis of the DSAC (dual single-atom catalyst) of Pd-N4/Cu-N4 by electrochemical reduction. (b) TEM image of reduced CuPc (Cu clusters and defected N4 sites) by electrochemical reduction. (c,d) HAADF-STEM images of Pd-N4/Cu-N4. (e) the CV curve of the partial EG oxidation on Pd-N4/Cu-N4, Pd/C, and CuPc. (f) the FE of the glycolate (blue) and formate (orange) products produced by the as-prepared catalyst Pd-N4/Cu-N4. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [27]. Copyright 2022 Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Fig. 9. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of Pd-Ni(OH)2 on NF. SEM (b) and TEM (c) images (inset: SAED image) of Pd-Ni(OH)2/NF. (d) Surface valence band photoemission spectra of Pd and Pd-Ni(OH)2. (e) LSV curves and (f) comparisons of the potentials needed to achieve designated current densities for Pd-Ni(OH)2/NF. (g) 1H NMR spectra of electrolyte products. (h) FE of Pd-Ni(OH)2/NF for GA production. (i) Stability test of Pd-Ni(OH)2/NF. (j) PDOS (d-band) of Pd and Pd-Ni(OH)2. (k) Calculated adsorption energies of EG and OH on the surfaces of Pd and Pd-Ni(OH)2. (l) Calculated adsorption energies of GA and CO on the surfaces of Pd and Pd-Ni(OH)2. (m) Gibbs free energy diagrams for EG-to-GA oxidation on Pd and Pd-Ni(OH)2. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [31]. Copyright 2023, Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic illustration for the synthesis of Pd/NiMoO4/NF. TEM (b) and HRTEM (c,d) images of Pd/NiMoO4/NF. XPS valence band spectra of Pd/NiMoO4/NF (e) and (f) Pd/NF. (g) LSV curves of obtained electrocatalysts for ethylene glycol anodic oxidation. (h) Tafel slopes of Pd/NiMoO4/NF and Pd/NF. (i) Faradaic efficiencies (FEs) of Pd/NiMoO4/NF for sodium glycolate production. (j) FEs and current density of Pd/NiMoO4/NF for sodium glycolate production for 1500 h electrolysis cycles. Schematic illustration of the pro-posed EGOR mechanism on Pd/NiMoO4/NF (k) and Pd/NF (l). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [29]. Copyright 2024, The Author(s).

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of Pd-CuCo2O4. SEM (b), TEM (c) andHRTEM (d) images of Pd-CuCo2O4. (e) Comparison of anodic potentials between EGOR and OER for Pd-CuCo2O4 in ASS. (f) FE and productivity of GA at each batch of reaction. (g) The corresponding electricity consumption of ISE or ASE at different current densities. (h) Calculated adsorption energies of EG and OH on the surfaces of Pd and Pd-CuCo2O4 (i) Calculated adsorption energies of Cl on the surfaces of Pd and Pd-CuCo2O4. (j) PDOS (d-band) of Pd and Pd-CuCo2O4. (k) Gibbs free energy diagrams for EG-to-GA oxidation on Pd and Pd-CuCo2O4. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [30]. Copyright 2024, Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Fig. 12. Electrocatalytic Upcycling of Glycerol (from Biodiesel Byproduct) and Ethylene Glycol (from Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Waste) to LA and GA, respectively. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [12]. Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 13. HAADF-STEM images and particle size distribution of Pt/MCM-41 (a), PtMn/MCM-41 (IM) (b), PtMn/MCM-41 (In-70) (c) and PtMn/MCM-41(In-26) (d) catalysts. (e,f) HRTEM images of the PtMn/MCM-41 (In-70) catalyst. (g) Mulliken charge (|e|) distribution. (h) Energy profiles and configuration diagrams of reactants (R), transition states (TS) and products (P) for the oxidation of ethylene glycol to glycolic acid on the Pt (111) and Pt-Mn2O3 (111) models. (O atoms colored red. C atoms colored gray. H atoms colored white. Pt atom colored dark blue. Mn atom colored violet.) (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [32]. Copyright 2020 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved.

Fig. 14. (a) Schematic illustration of the preparation of the Pt-Ni(OH)2/NF. SEM (b,c) and HRTEM (d) images of Pt-Ni(OH)2. (e) LSV curves of Pt-Ni(OH)2/NF and Ni(OH)2/NF in 1.0 mol L-1 KOH and 0.1 mol L-1 EG. (f) 1H NMR spectra of products by electrolysis on Pt-Ni(OH)2/NF. (g) Faraday efficiencies of EGOR at various potentials on Pt-Ni(OH)2/NF. (h) The partial density of states (PDOS) of Pt-Ni(OH)2 and Pt. (i) Charge density difference of Pt-Ni(OH)2. (j) Free-energy diagram of EGOR on Pt-Ni(OH)2 and Pt. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [33]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 15. TEM (a) and HR-TEM (b) image of Pt/SeC. LSV curves (c) and chronoamperometric measurements (d) of different catalysts. (e) Product selectivity and EG conversion under different potentials at 60 °C. (f) Consequtive cyclic EGOR test of Pt/SePC. (g) The structure of the carbon support without and with Se dopant; and d-band center (εd) of selected Pt atom and interaction between Pt NP and support. (h) Gibbs free energy diagram. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [28]. Copyright 2024, Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Fig. 16. (a) Electrochemical in-situ FTIR spectra of Pd-CuCo204 at various potentials. In-situ electrochemical FTIR spectra of Pd (b) and Pd-Ni(OH)2 (c). In-situ ATR-SEIRAS spectra collected on Pd (d) and PdB (e) electrodes.

Fig. 17. (a) In-situ IRAS spectra collected on Au electrodes in 1 mol L-1 NaOH + 1 mol L-1 EG solution. (b) HPLC profiles of the samples taken from the reaction residual on Au electrodes during the EGOR in 1 mol L-1 NaOH + 1 mol L-1 EG solution. (c) In situ ATR-SEIRA spectra taken on the Au surface in 0.1 mol L-1 NaOH containing 1 mol L-1 EG solution. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [66]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 18. (a) In-situ electrochemical IRAS on the Pt electrodes in 1 mol L-1 NaOH and 1 mol L-1 EG solution at 2 mV s-1. Reprinted with permission from ref 30. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society. (b) In-situ FTIR of Pt-Ni(OH)2/NF catalysis. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [33]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 19. Schematic of the C1 and C2 reaction pathways for electrochemical EGOR.

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Recent advances in the preparation of glycolic acid by selective electrocatalytic oxidation of ethylene glycol

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