Account of doping photocatalyst for water splitting

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(23)64637-6

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2024, Vol. 60: 1-24.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(23)64637-6

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Account of doping photocatalyst for water splitting

Wenjian Fang^a^,^e, Jiawei Yan^a, Zhidong Wei^a^,^b, Junying Liu^c, Weiqi Guo^d, Zhi Jiang^a, Wenfeng Shangguan^a^,^*()

^aResearch Center for Combustion and Environment Technology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
^bCollege of Smart Energy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
^cBiofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, Jiangsu, China
^dHuaneng Clean Energy Technology Research Institute, Beijing 102209, China
^eSchool of Electrical and Energy Power Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, Jiangsu, China

Received:2023-12-05 Accepted:2024-02-10 Online:2024-05-18 Published:2024-05-20
Contact: *E-mail: shangguan@sjtu.edu.cn (W. Shangguan).
About author:Wenfeng Shangguan (Shanghai Jiao Tong University) received his B.S. in 1983 and M.S. in 1988 from Wuhan University of Technology, and Ph.D degree in 1996 from Nagasaki University, Japan. He carried out postdoctoral research at the Kyushu Institute of Industrial Technology in Japan from 1996 to 2000. Since April 2000, he has been working in the School of Mechanical and Power Engineering at Shanghai Jiao Tong University as a professor. His research interests include environment catalysis and photocatalysis, solar hydrogen production and air quality controlling. He has published more than 200 peer-reviewed papers and secured over 30 invention patents. He has published 7 books including monographs and translations. He is in the list of the Most Cited Chinese Researchers by Elsevier China from 2014 to 2023. He received the First Prize of the Shanghai Natural Science Award and the National Baosteel Excellent Teachers Award. He is involved in various academic roles, serving as a Member of the Catalysis Committee of the Chinese Chemical Society and holding Editorial Board positions at journals such as the Journal of Environmental Science and Frontiers in Energy.
Supported by:
National Key Basic Research and Development Program(2018YFB1502001);National Natural Science Foundation of China(21773153);National Natural Science Foundation of China(22102095);Basic Science (Natural science) research project of higher education in Jiangsu Province(23KJB480011);Centre of Hydrogen Science of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China

Abstract

Abstract:

In the field of photocatalytic water splitting, the strategy of doping photocatalysts has emerged as a significant and extensively studied approach. Doping can effectively facilitate the modification of both the microstructure and energy band structure of the photocatalyst, addressing key performance limitations such as light absorption, position of the conduction and valence band minima (CBM and VBM), photogenerated carrier separation, and surface chemical reactions. In recent years, we have reported several works about the doping of rare earth elements into bismuth-based composite oxides. These endeavors are aimed at enhancing the conduction band minimum and achieving overall water splitting under visible light. Based on these bismuth-based composite oxides, we studied the effects of doping on the microstructures of photocatalysts, including exposed surfaces, surface properties, and defects. Recently, we introduce an innovative asymmetric doping technique—Selected Local Gradient Doping, intricately placing doped ions within nanocapsules. This approach allows for the gradual, controlled, and localized release of doped ions to the primary photocatalyst. Therefore, this account is to review our related research in the field of doping for photocatalytic water splitting. The primary focus on doping bismuth-based composite oxides and Asymmetry doping would significantly make contribution to the exploration of novel materials for photocatalytic water splitting under visible light and the enhancement of energy conversion efficiency.

Key words: Photocatalysis, Water splitting, Hydrogen, Doping, Energy band structure, Asymmetric doping

Wenjian Fang, Jiawei Yan, Zhidong Wei, Junying Liu, Weiqi Guo, Zhi Jiang, Wenfeng Shangguan. Account of doping photocatalyst for water splitting[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2024, 60: 1-24.

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Figures/Tables 19

Fig. 1. Several significant works about doping for photocatalytic water splitting.

Fig. 2. Our works about doping for photocatalytic water splitting.

Fig. 3. Various chemical methods for doping in photocatalysis. Schematic representation of the various doping processes. (A) Co-nucleation doping; (B) growth doping; (C) dopant-nucleation; (D) diffusion doping; (E) ion-exchange doping; (F) atomically precise doping; (G) digital doping [27], Copyright 2017, Wiley. (H) multilocal gradient-doping [42]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Fig. 4. Several advanced characterization methods. (A) In-situ high-temperature TEM and XRD [45]. Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. (B) Raman imaging and scanning electron microscopy (RISE) [42]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (C) XPS with different depths etched by argon ions [46]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. (D) Transient IR absorption combining UV lamp irradiation [47]. (E) potential-sensing electrochemical AFM (PS-EC-AFM) technique [48]. Copyright 2017, Nature. (F) X-ray absorption spectroscopy [49].

Fig. 5. (A) Three schemes of the band gap modifications for visible light sensitization with a lower shift of CBM (a), a higher shift of VBM (b), and impurity states (c). (B) Strategies of solid solution for band engineering.

Fig. 6. (A) Band gap structure of K4Ce2M10O30 (M = Ta, Nb) and comparison with redox couples for the photocatalytic production of H2 and O2 from water. (B) Schematic crystal structure of K4Ce2M10O30 (M = Ta, Nb) [57]. Copyright 2007, Elsevier. (C) Band gap structure of K4Ce2Ta10-xNbxO30. (D) UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectra of H2 evolution of K4Ce2Ta10-xNbxO30 [58]. Copyright 2007, Elsevier. TEM images for NiOx anchoring on K4Ce2Ta10O30 (E) and K4Ce2Nb10O30 (F) [57]. Copyright 2007, Elsevier. (G) Photocatalysts K4Ce2M10O30 (M = Ta, Nb) without loading and with loading of Pt, RuO2, and NiOx. 0.1 g catalyst was dispersed in 20 mL of Na2SO3 solution (0.2 mol L?1) under visible light irradiation (> 420 nm) for 4 h [58]. Copyright 2007, Elsevier.

Fig. 7. (A) Diffuse reflection spectra of BiYWO6, Bi2O3, Y2O3, WO3, Bi2WO6, and Y2WO6 samples [40].Copyright 2008, American Chemical Society. (B) Diffuse reflectance UV-vis spectra of the BYV mixed oxides [41]. Copyright 2011, Royal Society of Chemistry. (C) UV-visible diffuse reflectance spectra of BMV solid solutions [65].Copyright 2012, Elsevier. (D) Schematic band structures of YVO4, BYV (0.5), zircon type BiVO4, and fergusonite BiVO4 [41]. Copyright 2011, Royal Society of Chemistry. (E) Time courses of photocatalytic water splitting over BYV (0.375) loaded with 0.275% Rh-0.4% Cr2O3 cocatalyst under full arc light irradiation (> 300 nm). Catalyst weight: 0.2 g [41]. Copyright 2011, Royal Society of Chemistry. (F) Photocatalytic activities of BMV solid solutions and effective ionic radii of M cations [65]. Copyright 2012, Elsevier.

Fig. 8. (A) XRD patterns of Bi3-xYxO4Cl. (B) UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectra (DRS) of Bi3-xYxO4Cl. (C) Crystal structure of Bi3-xYxO4Cl, and Elemental mappings of Bi3-xYxO4Cl. (D) H2 evolution rate of Bi3-xYxO4Cl under visible light. (E) H2 evolution rate of Bi2YO4Cl with different sacrificial agents under visible light [66]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 9. (A) Bi16Sb4O32Cl4 supercell with space group P21cn. (B) XRD patterns of Bi4SbO8Cl. (C) Raman spectra of Bi4SbO8Cl. (D) UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectra (DRS) of Bi4SbO8Cl; inset: bandgaps of Bi4SbO8Cl estimated by related curves of (αhν)^2 vs. hν. (E) H2 evolution rate of Bi4SbO8Cl under visible light. (F,I) Band structures of Bi4NbO8Cl and Bi4SbO8Cl; (G,J) the full density of states for Bi4NbO8Cl and Bi4SbO8Cl; (H,K) the Bi partial density of states for Bi4NbO8Cl and Bi4SbO8Cl [67]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Fig. 10. (A) XRD patterns of BixY1-xVO4 prepared by hydrothermal procedure (pH = 4, reaction temperature = 453 K, and reaction time = 48 h) [69]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (B) SEM images of BiVO4 (Scale bar, 500 nm) [68]. Copyright 2013, Springer Nature. (C) SEM images of BixY1-xVO4. (D) (100), (010), and (001) faces of BixY1-xVO4 (red: O; gray: V; purple: Bi; cyan: Y) [69]. (E) Sketch for the transfer of photogenerated charges [69]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (F) Raman spectrum of the prepared samples [61]. (G) Simulated photogenerated electric field distribution after the light irradiation [61]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Fig. 11. (A) The migration of Bi elements within the crystal structure of tetragonal zircon-type BixY1-xVO4 mixed oxides toward the surface under increased pressure and elevated temperatures. (B) Diffuse reflectance UV-vis spectra of the BixY1-xVO4 under increased pressure. (C) Diffuse reflectance UV-vis spectra of the BixY1-xVO4 under elevated temperatures. (D) HRTEM images for the BixY1-xVO4 under increased pressure. (E) Schematic of relative band energy positions and the proposed photocatalytic OWS mechanism for BixY1-xVO4 and BixY1-xVO4 under increased pressure [71]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (F) a and d SEM images of BYVO and BYVO@PCN; b and e TEM images of BYVO and BYVO@PCN. (G) The schematic diagram of in-situ polycondensation melamine on the surface of BixY1-xVO4; (blue: N; gray: C; white: H; red: O; purple: Bi; green: Y; black gray: V); b the schematic diagram of the energy band alignment, electron charge transfer, and water splitting mechanism for BYVO@PCN [72]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Fig. 12. HRTEM images of STO-N2 (A?C) and Blue-STO (D?F). (G) UV-vis-NIR diffuse reflectance spectra of STO-N2 and Blue-STO. (H) EPR spectra of STO-N2 and Blue-STO. (I) H2 and O2 evolution of STO-N2 and Blue-STO in pure water. (J) Schematic diagram for the influence of bulk and surface defects on photocatalytic activity [73]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Fig. 13. (A) Scheme for Ge doped cobalt oxide for electrocatalytic and photocatalytic water splitting. (B) Photocatalytic OWS activity of BYV, BYV/CoOOH (PD), BYV/CO3O4 (WI), and BYV/CO2Ge1 (WI). (C) AQY values and UV-visible absorbance spectra for BYV and BYV/CO2Ge1 (WI). (D) Photocatalytic OWS system comprising a BYV solid solution and HEC and OEC cocatalysts, (E) energy band diagram of BYV, BYV/ CO3O4 (WI), and BYV/CO2Ge1 (WI) [86]. Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 14. (A) Scheme of (Na, O) co doped g-C3N4 obtained by solvothermal method. (B) UV-vis absorption spectra of bulk g-C3N4 and (Na,O)-g-C3N4 [108]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (C,D) Polymerizable complex synthesis of SrTiO3:(Cr/Ta) photocatalysts to improve photocatalytic water splitting activity under visible light [109]. Copyright 2016, Elsevier.

Fig. 15. (A) Schematic representation of Kohn-Sham one-electron states and spin density plot of the substitutionally doped anatase TiO2. (B) Schematic representation of Kohn-Sham one-electron states and spin density plot of the interstitially doped anatase TiO2 [112]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (C) Diffusing reflectance spectra of N doped TiO2 powders at different N doped contents. (D) Photocatalytic activities for H2 evolution over N doped TiO2 (0.1 g) in 0.2 mol L?1 Na2SO3 solution. Light source: Xe lamp (300 W). Urea/TiO2 = 1, 3, 5, and 5 for samples (a), (b), (c) and (d) (> 400 nm), respectively, calcined at 350 °C; urea/TiO2 = 3 and calcined at 350 and 500 °C for samples (e) and (f), respectively [113]. Copyright 2006, Elsevier.

Fig. 16. (A) Schematic illustration of the structure and electronic DOS of a semiconductor in the form of a disorder engineered nanocrystal with dopant incorporation. Dopants are depicted as black dots and disorder is represented in the outer layer of the nanocrystal. The conduction and valence levels of a bulk semiconductor, Ec and Ev, respectively, are also shown, and the bands of the nanocrystals are shown on the left. The effect of disorder, which creases broadened tails of states extending into the otherwise forbidden band gap, is shown at the right, (B) A photo comparing unmodified white and disorder-engineered black, nanocrystals. (C,D) HRTEM images of TiO2, nanocrystals before and after hydrogenation, respectively. In (D), a short-dashed curve is applied to outline a portion of the interface between the crystalline core and the disordered outer layer (marked by white arrows) of black TiO2 [38]. Copyright 2011, Science. (E) SEM images of BYVO. (F) HRTEM images of BYVO. (G) SEM images of R-BYVO. (H)HRTEM images of R-BYVO. (I) Electronic band structure of BYVO and R-BYVO derived from UPS spectra and XPS Valence band spectra. (J) The apparent quantum yield. (K) The schematic diagram of the surface phosphorization process; (orchid: P; white: H; red: O; purple: Bi; green: Y; black gray: V). (L) The schematic diagram of the energy band structures for BYVO and R-BYVO [114]. Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 17. (A) BF (a) and HAADF (b) STEM images of ZnmIn2S3+m/In(OH)3-1; Elemental mappings of In (c), Zn (d), O (e), and S (f). Inset: intensity profile corresponding to the red rectangle area. (B) (a) HRTEM image of the selected area A marked in Fig. 17(A); (b) HRTEM image and (c) SEAD pattern of the selected area I; (d) HRTEM image of the selected area II; (e) HRTEM image and (f) SEAD pattern of the selected area III. (g) Intensity profile corresponding to the yellow rectangle area in (d). (C) UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectra of ZnmIn2S3+m/In(OH)3-X. (D) H2 evolution rate of samples: (a) ZnIn2S4; (b) 1 wt % Pt/ZnIn2S4; (c) 1 wt% Pt/ ZnmIn2S3+m/In(OH)3-0.25; (d) 1 wt% Pt/ ZnmIn2S3+m/In(OH)3-0.5; (e) 1 wt% Pt/ ZnmIn2S3+m/In(OH)3-1; (f) 1 wt% Pt/ ZnmIn2S3+m/In(OH)3-2; (g) 1 wt% Pt/ In(OH)3. Reaction conditions: catalyst 50 mg; 60 mL aqueous solution containing 0.35 mol L?1 Na2S and 0.25 mol L?1 Na2SO3; 300 W Xe lamp with a 420 nm cut filter. (E) Schematic for charge separation and transfer in the concentration gradient ZnmIn2S3+m/In(OH)3 heterojunction composites [125]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Fig. 18. (A,B,E) Schematic illustrations of K+ ion release controlled via point-diffusion occurring on PCN substrate with the resulting gradient K+ doping distribution, which exhibits an outstanding photocatalytic performance in hydrogen evolution. (C) The atomic arrangement of KTOpyr crystalline structure displays a unique coadjacent network with 3D channels for K+ storing and transfer. (D) The morphology characterization and microstructure observed in SEM imaging. Octahedral KTOpyr particles are embedded into the substrate and tightly wrapped by PCN layers. (F) Activity contrasts of different K+ doping sources with regard to photocatalytic hydrogen evolution from water splitting. Error bars are noted with black lines. (G) The apparent quantum yield. (H) In-situ XRD patterns recorded during the calcination of KTOpyr solely. (I) In-situ XRD patterns recorded during the calcination of KTOpyr embedded into PCN (M). (J) a-b, The BSE image (b) with the scale bar of 1 μm and five tagged collected points are schematized via RISE measurement (a), which is recorded on gradient K+ doped PCN&KTO sample. c-d, Raman spectra (c) at five points (#1-5) compared to pristine PCN with corresponding magnified windows of two dotted sections after smoothing and the variation trend of Raman intensity with the location (d) [42]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Fig. 19. The outlook of doping photocatalyst for water splitting.

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Account of doping photocatalyst for water splitting

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