Photoelectrochemical nitrogen reduction: A step toward achieving sustainable ammonia synthesis

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(21)64001-9

Abstract

Abstract:

Industrial NH₃ production mainly employs the well-known Haber-Bosch (H-B) process, which is associated with significant energy consumption and carbon emissions. Photoelectrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction (PEC-NRR) under ambient conditions is considered a promising alternative to the H-B process and has been attracting increasing attention owing to its associated energy efficiency and environmentally friendly characteristics. The performance of a PEC-NRR system, such as the NH₃ yield, selectivity, and stability, is essentially determined by its key component, the photocathode. In this review, the latest progress in the development of photocathode materials employed in PEC-NRR is evaluated. The fundamental mechanisms and essential features required for the PEC-NRR are introduced, followed by a discussion of various types of photocathode materials, such as oxides, sulfides, selenides, black silicon, and black phosphorus. In particular, the PEC-NRR reaction mechanisms associated with these photocathode materials are reviewed in detail. Finally, the present challenges and future opportunities related to the further development of PEC-NRR are also discussed. This review aims to improve the understanding of PEC-NRR photocathode materials while also shedding light on the new concepts and significant innovations in this field.

Key words: Nitrogen reduction, Photoelectrochemistry, Photocathode, Sustainability, Carbon neutrality

Liqun Wang, Xiao Yan, Wenping Si, Daolan Liu, Xinggang Hou, Dejun Li, Feng Hou, Shi Xue Dou, Ji Liang. Photoelectrochemical nitrogen reduction: A step toward achieving sustainable ammonia synthesis[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2022, 43(7): 1761-1773.

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Figures/Tables 9

Fig. 1. Schematic overview of the PEC-NRR topics covered in this review.

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of (a) the configuration of the PEC-NRR cell using the photocathode as working electrode. (b) Possible reaction routes for PEC-NRR on the photocathode surface.

Table 1 Summary of PEC-NRR performance for various photocathodes.

Photocathode material	NH₃ yield rate (μg cm^-2 h^-1)	FE (%)	Potential (V_RHE)	Light source	Ref.
Fe-doped and Au-doped W₁₈O₄₉ nanorods	9.82	N/A	-0.65 V vs. Ag/AgCl	1 sun with AM 1.5 G filter	[27]
CuO nanofibers	5.3	17	0.6	1 sun with AM 1.5 G filter	[28]
Cu₂O film	7.2	20	0.4	1 sun with AM 1.5 G filter	[28]
Cu-MOF/Cu₂O	~12.2	N/A	0.5	A full spectrum xenon lamp (100 mw cm^-2)	[56]
Ag/Ni-MOF/Cu₂O	4.64	24.3	0.5	1 sun with AM 1.5 G filter	[61]
OV-rich BiOI	2.38	N/A	0.4	A xenon lamp (100 mw cm^-2)	[62]
NV-g-C₃N₅/BiOBr	29.4 (μg mg_cat.^-1 h^-1)	11	-0.2	A solar simulator with a cutoff filter (λ ≥ 420 nm)	[63]
p-BiVO₄	~1.9	16.2	-0.1	A 300 W xenon lamp (100 mw cm^-2)	[64]
Cu₂S/In₂S₃	17.7	29.4	-0.6	1 sun with AM 1.5 G filter	[29]
MoS₂/TiO₂	24.1	65.52	-0.2	A 300 W xenon lamp with AM 1.5 G filter	[30]
MoSe₂/g-C₃N₄	131.2	28.91	-0.3	A 300 W xenon lamp with AM 1.5 G filter	[68]
Au NPs/BSi/Cr	~1.3	N/A	N/A	A 300 W xenon lamp with 2 sun	[73]
Ag NPs/BSi	~47.3	~55.05	-0.2	A 300 W xenon lamp with AM 1.5 G filter	[74]
Au NPs/PCN/n⁺np⁺-Si	13.8	61.8	-0.1	1 sun with AM 1.5 G filter	[31]
black phosphorus	102.4 (μg mg_cat.^-1 h^-1)	23.3	-0.4	A 300 W xenon lamp with AM 1.5 G filter	[77]

Fig. 3. (a) Schematic illustration of EC-NRR (left) and PEC-NRR (right). Ecell, ηc, and ηa represent the voltage required to operate the cell, the cathodic overpotential, and the anodic overpotential, respectively. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [28]. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. Synthesis process (b) and high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) image (c) of the Cu-metal-organic framework (MOF)/Cu2O heterojunction. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [56]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier B.V. (d) Ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy map of Ag/Ni-MOF/Cu2O. (e) Gibbs free energy diagrams of the PEC-NRR over Ag/Ni-MOF/Cu2O at 0.5 VRHE. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [61]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier B.V.

Fig. 4. Proposed process (a) and electron transfer route (b) of PEC-NRR at the R-BiOI photocathode. (a,b) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [62]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier B.V. (c) Schematic illustration of PEC-NRR mechanism (left) and energy band structure (right) of NV-g-C3N5/BiOBr. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [63]. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. (d) Schematic diagram of the PEC-NRR mechanism and electron transfer path. (e) NH3 yield rates (left) and FEs (right) of the p-BiVO4 photocathode at different potentials under illumination. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [64]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier B.V.

Fig. 5. The synthesis procedure (a) and HRTEM image (b) of Cu2S/In2S3 heterostructure nanocrystals. (a,b) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [29]. Copyright 2021, The Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Schematic illustration for the PEC-NRR performance of MoS2/TiO2. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [30]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. (d) Schematic representation of MoSe2/g-C3N4 heterojunction photocathode for PEC-NRR; (e) NH3 yield rates and FEs of a MoSe2/g-C3N4 photocathode at different potentials. (d,e) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [68]. Copyright 2021, The Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process of the Au NPs/BSi/Cr photoelectrode. (b) Transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of Au NP-coated Si nanowires. (c) Schematic diagram of the PEC-NRR mechanism of the Au NPs/BSi/Cr photoelectrode. (a-c) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [73]. Copyright 2016, Nature Publishing Group. (d) Schematic illustration of the fabrication route of the Ag/BSi photoelectrode. (e) TEM image of the Ag/BSi nanostructure. (f) Schematic illustration of the PEC-NRR mechanism of the Ag/BSi photocathode. (d-f) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [74]. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 7. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of BP NSs and BP electrodes. (b) PEC-NRR activity of the BP electrode where the electrolyte was replenished every 2 h. (c) The synergy between illumination and applied bias for the PEC-NRR over the BP photoelectrode. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [77]. Copyright 2020, WILEY-VCH.

Fig. 8. Scheme illustrating the designing of photocathode materials for efficient and stable PEC-NRR toward the development of sustainable NH3 synthesis.

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