Recent advances in tantalum nitride for photoelectrochemical water splitting

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(24)60165-8

Abstract

Abstract:

Harnessing solar energy for renewable fuel production through artificial photosynthesis offers an ideal solution to the current energy and environmental crises. Among various methods, photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting stands out as a promising approach for direct solar-driven hydrogen production. Enhancing the efficiency and stability of photoelectrodes is a key focus in PEC water-splitting research. Tantalum nitride (Ta₃N₅), with its suitable band gap and band-edge positions for PEC water splitting, has emerged as a highly promising photoanode material. This review begins by introducing the history and fundamental characteristics of Ta₃N₅, emphasizing both its advantages and challenges. It then explores methods to improve light absorption efficiency, charge separation and transfer efficiency, surface reaction rate, and the stability of Ta₃N₅ photoanodes. Additionally, the review discusses the progress of research on tandem PEC cells incorporating Ta₃N₅ photoanodes. Finally, it looks ahead to future research directions for Ta₃N₅ photoanodes. The strategic approach outlined in this review can also be applied to other photoelectrode materials, providing guidance for their development.

Key words: Photoelectrochemical water splitting, Tantalum nitride, Light absorption efficiency, Charge separation and transfer efficiency, Surface reaction rate, Stability

Wenjie Yu, Chao Feng, Ronghua Li, Beibei Zhang, Yanbo Li. Recent advances in tantalum nitride for photoelectrochemical water splitting[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2025, 68: 51-82.

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Figures/Tables 24

Fig. 1. (a) The principle of the PC water splitting system. (b) Illustration of Z-scheme overall water splitting on particulate photocatalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [21]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Schematic diagram of the PEC water splitting process.

Fig. 2. Timeline of the main developments of Ta3N5.

Fig. 3. (a) The Crystal structure of Ta3N5. Color legend: Ta in gray and N in blue. The Tauc’s plots of Ta3N5 for direct bandgaps (b) and indirect bandgaps (c). (d) The theory of electronic density of states and k-space band structure diagrams for Ta3N5. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [61]. Copyright 2015, Academic Press Inc. (e) Schematic illustration of band structures of Ta3N5 semiconductor. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [47]. Copyright 2003, the American Chemical Society. (f) The absorption coefficient of Ta3N5. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [62]. Copyright 2016, SpringerOpen.

Fig. 4. (a) Schematic energy diagram of the Ta3N5 photoanode for PEC water splitting. (b) Illustration of the deactivation mechanism of the Ta3N5 photoanode.

Fig. 5. The factors limiting the PEC performance of Ta3N5 photoanodes and the corresponding strategies. (a) Morphology engineering. (b) Defect engineering. (c) Interface engineering. (d) Co-catalyst modification. (e) Surface protective layer.

Table 1 Bulk phase strategies for enhancing PEC performance of Ta3N5 photoanodes.

Strategy		Photoanode	Method		Electrolyte		V_op (V_RHE)		J (mA cm^-2) at 1.23 V_RHE		HC-STH		IPCE			Stability	Ref.
Morphology engineering		Co(OH)_x/ Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	hydrothermal & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		~0.25		2.8		NR		37.8%-480 nm-1.23 V_RHE			10 min decayed by 90% at 1.23 V_RHE	[84]
		Co₃O₄/Co(II)/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	hydrothermal & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		3.64		NR		39.5%-440 nm-1.23 V_RHE			2 h decayed by 8% at 1.23 V_RHE	[82]
		IrO₂/Vertically aligned Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	anodization & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₄ (pH 13)		~0.75		3.8		NR		41.3%-440 nm-1.23 V_RHE			20 min decayed by 80% at 1 V_RHE	[45]
		CoPi/Ba-Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	anodization & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ (pH 13)		0.65		6.7		1.56% at 0.87 V_RHE		86%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE			100 min decayed by 5% at 0.9 V_RHE	[46]
		CoPi/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	anodization & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.7		4.2		0.69% at 0.95 V_RHE		NR			Stable at 1 V_RHE	[197]
		CoPi/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	hydrothermal & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.7)		~0.8		3.6		NR		NR			NR	[198]
		Ni(Fe)O_x/Ta₃N₅/Si nanowire	atomic layer deposition		0.1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13)		0.74		2.4		NR		~20%-500 nm-1.23 V_RHE			24 h decayed by 40-50% at 1 V_RHE	[88]
		FeNiO_x/polycrystal lline Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	glancing angle deposition & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.57		9.93		2.72% at 0.89 V_RHE		87%-380 nm-1.1 V_RHE			70 min decayed by 20% at 1.1 V_RHE	[83]
		FeNiCoO_x/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	glancing angle deposition & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.59		10.96		2.1% at 0.91 V_RHE		~92%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE			3 h decayed by 4% at 0.91 V_RHE	[85]
		NiCoFe-B_i/NbN_x@Mg:Ta₃N₅ NRs	hydrothermal, atomic layer deposition & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.46		7		2.24% at 0.78 V_RHE		(50%-72%)-(400-550 nm)-1 V_RHE			150 min no obvious decayed at 1 V_RHE	[89]
		Co₃O₄/Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	anodization & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		~0.8		4.3		0.32% at 1.08 V_RHE		30%-400 nm-1.2 V_RHE			NR	[90]
		Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	anodization & nitridation		0.1 mol L^-1 K₄[Fe (CN)₆] + 0.1 mmol L^-1 K₃[Fe(CN)₆] (pH 7.5)		~0.29		7.4		NR		NR			NR	[93]
Morphology engineering	Co(OH)_x/Ta₃N₅ NTs/(Ta₂N/TaN)/Ta			anodization, (Ar/H₂) calcine & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.6		6.3		NR		65%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR			[95]
	Co(OH)_x(A)/Ta₃N₅ NTs(A)/Ta			anodization, nitridation & Ar plasma(A)		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		~0.6		7.2		NR		70.4%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR			[78]
	Co(OH)_x/Ta₃N₅ NP/NT/Ta			anodization & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		NR		8.73		NR		36.6%-400 nm-1 V_RHE	NR			[96]
	CoPi/Co(OH)_x/Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta			anodization & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		6.3		NR		NR	20 min decayed by 52% at 1.1 V_RHE			[199]
	IrO₂/Ta₃N₅ hollow sphere-nanofilms/Ta			impregnation & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₄ (pH 13)		NR		~5.4		NR		43.5%-470 nm-1.23 V_RHE	60 min decayed by 30% at 0.88 V_RHE			[80]
Defects engineering	Co(OH)_x/Ge:Ta₃N₅/ FTO			electrophoresis deposition		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		2.3		NR		20%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	3 h decayed by 75% at 1.23 V_RHE			[106]
	Mg-Zr:Ta₃N₅			flux-assisted nitridation & particle transfer		0.1 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₄ (pH 13)		0.55		2.3		0.59% at 0.82 V_RHE		18%-400 nm- 0.8 V_RHE	NR			[107]
	CoOOH/Mg:Ta₃N₅ NRs/FTO			flux-assisted nitriding & electrophoresis deposition		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		0.6		6.5		0.78% at 1.02 V_RHE		~54%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	70 min decayed by 30% at 1 V_RHE			[109]
	CoPi/B:Ta₃N₅ nanocrystals/Ta			solgel & electrophoresis deposition		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		1.8		0.54% at 0.64 V_RHE		~10%-400 nm-0.97 V_RHE	NR			[125]
	Co(OH)_x/Sc:Ta₃N₅ NRs/FTO			flux-assisted nitriding & electrophoresis deposition		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		0.4		4.9		0.82% at 0.9 V_RHE		~55%-450 nm-1.23 V_RHE	2 h decayed by 40% at 0.9 V_RHE			[86]
	NiCoFe-B_i/gradient Mg:Ta₃N₅/Nb			dual-source electron beam evaporation & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.4		8.5		3.25 ± 0.05% at 0.74 V_RHE		80%-400 nm- 1.0 V_RHE	5 h no obvious decayed at 1.0 V_RHE			[31]
	Co(OH)₂/Mg/ Zr:Ta₃N₅/Ta			solution combustion route & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.45		3.5		0.45% at 0.98 V_RHE		35%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	Not good			[110]
	Co(OH)_x/ Zr:Ta₃N₅/Ta			CO₂-assisted oxidation & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.51		7.2		NR		NR	Not very good			[108]
	NiCoFe-B_i/La:Ta₃N₅/ Gradient-Mg:Ta₃N₅/Nb			dual-source electron beam evaporation & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.39		10.06		~4.07% at 0.74 V_RHE		89.7%-480 nm-1.0 V_RHE	120 min no decayed at 1.0 V_RHE			[112]
	Co(OH)_x/GaN/ Sn:Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta			anodization & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 NaOH + HCl (pH 12.5)		0.42		4.58		NR		39%-465 nm-1.23 V_RHE	20 h decayed by ~73% at 1.23 V_RHE			[114]
	Ti:Ta₃N₅/Si			magnetron sputtering & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ (pH 12.3)		~0.95		0.18		NR		NR	14 h decayed by ~20% at 1.23 V_RHE			[115]
	NiCoFe-B_i/ Cu-Zrg:Ta₃N₅/FTO			flux-assisted nitriding & electrophoresis deposition		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.38		8.9		~3.5% at 0.7 V_RHE		72%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	10 h decayed by 14% at 1 V_RHE			[201]

Table 1 Bulk phase strategies for enhancing PEC performance of Ta3N5 photoanodes.

Strategy		Photoanode	Method		Electrolyte		V_op (V_RHE)		J (mA cm^-2) at 1.23 V_RHE		HC-STH		IPCE			Stability	Ref.
Morphology engineering		Co(OH)_x/ Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	hydrothermal & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		~0.25		2.8		NR		37.8%-480 nm-1.23 V_RHE			10 min decayed by 90% at 1.23 V_RHE	[84]
		Co₃O₄/Co(II)/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	hydrothermal & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		3.64		NR		39.5%-440 nm-1.23 V_RHE			2 h decayed by 8% at 1.23 V_RHE	[82]
		IrO₂/Vertically aligned Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	anodization & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₄ (pH 13)		~0.75		3.8		NR		41.3%-440 nm-1.23 V_RHE			20 min decayed by 80% at 1 V_RHE	[45]
		CoPi/Ba-Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	anodization & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ (pH 13)		0.65		6.7		1.56% at 0.87 V_RHE		86%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE			100 min decayed by 5% at 0.9 V_RHE	[46]
		CoPi/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	anodization & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.7		4.2		0.69% at 0.95 V_RHE		NR			Stable at 1 V_RHE	[197]
		CoPi/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	hydrothermal & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.7)		~0.8		3.6		NR		NR			NR	[198]
		Ni(Fe)O_x/Ta₃N₅/Si nanowire	atomic layer deposition		0.1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13)		0.74		2.4		NR		~20%-500 nm-1.23 V_RHE			24 h decayed by 40-50% at 1 V_RHE	[88]
		FeNiO_x/polycrystal lline Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	glancing angle deposition & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.57		9.93		2.72% at 0.89 V_RHE		87%-380 nm-1.1 V_RHE			70 min decayed by 20% at 1.1 V_RHE	[83]
		FeNiCoO_x/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	glancing angle deposition & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.59		10.96		2.1% at 0.91 V_RHE		~92%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE			3 h decayed by 4% at 0.91 V_RHE	[85]
		NiCoFe-B_i/NbN_x@Mg:Ta₃N₅ NRs	hydrothermal, atomic layer deposition & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.46		7		2.24% at 0.78 V_RHE		(50%-72%)-(400-550 nm)-1 V_RHE			150 min no obvious decayed at 1 V_RHE	[89]
		Co₃O₄/Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	anodization & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		~0.8		4.3		0.32% at 1.08 V_RHE		30%-400 nm-1.2 V_RHE			NR	[90]
		Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	anodization & nitridation		0.1 mol L^-1 K₄[Fe (CN)₆] + 0.1 mmol L^-1 K₃[Fe(CN)₆] (pH 7.5)		~0.29		7.4		NR		NR			NR	[93]
Morphology engineering	Co(OH)_x/Ta₃N₅ NTs/(Ta₂N/TaN)/Ta			anodization, (Ar/H₂) calcine & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.6		6.3		NR		65%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR			[95]
	Co(OH)_x(A)/Ta₃N₅ NTs(A)/Ta			anodization, nitridation & Ar plasma(A)		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		~0.6		7.2		NR		70.4%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR			[78]
	Co(OH)_x/Ta₃N₅ NP/NT/Ta			anodization & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		NR		8.73		NR		36.6%-400 nm-1 V_RHE	NR			[96]
	CoPi/Co(OH)_x/Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta			anodization & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		6.3		NR		NR	20 min decayed by 52% at 1.1 V_RHE			[199]
	IrO₂/Ta₃N₅ hollow sphere-nanofilms/Ta			impregnation & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₄ (pH 13)		NR		~5.4		NR		43.5%-470 nm-1.23 V_RHE	60 min decayed by 30% at 0.88 V_RHE			[80]
Defects engineering	Co(OH)_x/Ge:Ta₃N₅/ FTO			electrophoresis deposition		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		2.3		NR		20%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	3 h decayed by 75% at 1.23 V_RHE			[106]
	Mg-Zr:Ta₃N₅			flux-assisted nitridation & particle transfer		0.1 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₄ (pH 13)		0.55		2.3		0.59% at 0.82 V_RHE		18%-400 nm- 0.8 V_RHE	NR			[107]
	CoOOH/Mg:Ta₃N₅ NRs/FTO			flux-assisted nitriding & electrophoresis deposition		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		0.6		6.5		0.78% at 1.02 V_RHE		~54%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	70 min decayed by 30% at 1 V_RHE			[109]
	CoPi/B:Ta₃N₅ nanocrystals/Ta			solgel & electrophoresis deposition		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		1.8		0.54% at 0.64 V_RHE		~10%-400 nm-0.97 V_RHE	NR			[125]
	Co(OH)_x/Sc:Ta₃N₅ NRs/FTO			flux-assisted nitriding & electrophoresis deposition		1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		0.4		4.9		0.82% at 0.9 V_RHE		~55%-450 nm-1.23 V_RHE	2 h decayed by 40% at 0.9 V_RHE			[86]
	NiCoFe-B_i/gradient Mg:Ta₃N₅/Nb			dual-source electron beam evaporation & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.4		8.5		3.25 ± 0.05% at 0.74 V_RHE		80%-400 nm- 1.0 V_RHE	5 h no obvious decayed at 1.0 V_RHE			[31]
	Co(OH)₂/Mg/ Zr:Ta₃N₅/Ta			solution combustion route & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.45		3.5		0.45% at 0.98 V_RHE		35%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	Not good			[110]
	Co(OH)_x/ Zr:Ta₃N₅/Ta			CO₂-assisted oxidation & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.51		7.2		NR		NR	Not very good			[108]
	NiCoFe-B_i/La:Ta₃N₅/ Gradient-Mg:Ta₃N₅/Nb			dual-source electron beam evaporation & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.39		10.06		~4.07% at 0.74 V_RHE		89.7%-480 nm-1.0 V_RHE	120 min no decayed at 1.0 V_RHE			[112]
	Co(OH)_x/GaN/ Sn:Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta			anodization & nitridation		0.5 mol L^-1 NaOH + HCl (pH 12.5)		0.42		4.58		NR		39%-465 nm-1.23 V_RHE	20 h decayed by ~73% at 1.23 V_RHE			[114]
	Ti:Ta₃N₅/Si			magnetron sputtering & nitridation		1 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ (pH 12.3)		~0.95		0.18		NR		NR	14 h decayed by ~20% at 1.23 V_RHE			[115]
	NiCoFe-B_i/ Cu-Zrg:Ta₃N₅/FTO			flux-assisted nitriding & electrophoresis deposition		1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.38		8.9		~3.5% at 0.7 V_RHE		72%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	10 h decayed by 14% at 1 V_RHE			[201]

Table 2 Interfacial strategies for enhancing PEC performance of Ta3N5 photoanodes.

Strategy	Photoanode	Method	Electrolyte		V_op (V_RHE)		J (mA cm^-2) @ 1.23V_RHE		HC-STH		IPCE	Stability		Ref
Interface engineering	Co:Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, impregnation & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		NR		~1.47		NR		NR	0.7 h decayed by ~0.4% at 1.39 V_RHE		[130]
	CoPi/Mg:GaN/ Ta₃N₅/Ta	sputtering, nitridation & N₂ post annealed	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0		0.2		NR		~3.51%-420 nm-1.23 V_RHE	1 h decayed by 50% at 1.23 V_RHE		[119]
	Cu₂O nanoparticles/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	molten salt method	0.1 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₄ + 0.1 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₃ (pH 10.2)		0.326		~8.2		NR		60%-380 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR		[131]
	Co₃O₄/La:Ta₃N₅/Ta	oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		~0.8		8.2		NR		60%-500 nm-1.23 V_RHE	20 min decayed by 30% at 1.23 V_RHE		[202]
	CoOOH/SrTaO₂N/ Ta₃N₅NRs/Ta	molten salt method	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		~1.65		NR		NR	1 h decayed by 60% at 1 V_RHE		[203]
	FeNiO_x/BaTaO₂N/ Ta₃N₅NRs/Ta	glancing angle deposition, dip-coating & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		NR		4.5		NR		35%-450 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR		[87]
	Co₃O₄/Fh/Ta₃N₅/ GaN/Ta/Ti	particle-transfer method	0.2 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.8		4.2		0.43% at 1 V_RHE		~8.8%-550 nm-1 V_RHE	NR		[127]
	NiCoFe-B_i/Mg:GaN/ Ta₃N₅/In:GaN/Nb	electron beam evaporation, atomic layer deposition & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.38		9.3		3.46% at ~0.77 V_RHE		90%-400 nm-1.0 V_RHE	10 h decayed by 20% at 1.0 V_RHE		[128]
	Co₃O₄/Fh/Cubic Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, impregnation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		5.2		NR		NR	6 h decayed by 6% at 1.23 V_RHE		[120]
	Ni(OH)_x/MoO₃/ Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 LiOH (pH 12)		0.25		1.34		NR		~13%-400 nm-1.2 V_RHE	24 h decayed by ~5% at 1.23 V_RHE		[121]
	Co complex and Ir complex/Ni(OH)_x/ fh/TiO_x/Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		12.1		2.5% at 0.9 V_RHE		97%-450 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR		[44]
	CoPi/Ni(OH)_x/CoO_x/ Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 LiOH (pH 12.0)		NR		4.8		NR		NR	30 h decayed by ~18% at 1.23 V_RHE		[122]
	Co(OH)_x/Ta₃N₅/ NbN_x/Ta/Ti	magnetron sputtering, oxidation & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.8		3.5		NR		45%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR		[125]
	Ta₃N₅/TaON/FTO	flux-assisted nitriding & electrophoresis deposition	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		0.65		1.6		NR		~15%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR		[204]
	Ta₃N₅/FTO	atomic layer deposition	0.1 mol L^-1 K₄[Fe(CN)₆] (pH 7)		0.3		2.4		NR		25%-450 nm-1.0 V_RHE	NR		[205]
	Ta₃N₅/Ta	plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.7		8.1		NR		67%-500 nm-1.23 V_RHE	10 min decayed by 44% at 1.23 V_RHE		[126]
	NiFeO_x/Ta₃N₅/SiO₂	magnetron sputtering & nitridation	0.2 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.65		6		1.0% at 0.92 V_RHE		~70%-420 nm-1.2 V_RHE	NR		[206]
	NiFeO_x/Ta₃N₅/SiO₂	magnetron sputtering, oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)	0.65		5.1		6.3% at 1.23 V_RHE		NR			3 h decayed by 19% at 1.23 V_RHE		[207]
	NiFeO_x/Ta₃N₅/SiO₂	magnetron sputtering & nitridation	0.2 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)	0.65		5.9		1% at 0.95 V_RHE		65%-420 nm -1.23 V_RHE			NR		[208]
Co-catalyst modification	IrO₂/Ta₃N₅/FTO	nitridation & electrophoresis deposition	0.1 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₄ (pH 6)	-0.15		~3.9		NR		31%-500 nm -1.15 V_RHE			1 h decayed by 65% at 1.15 V_RHE		[135]
	Co₃O₄/Ta₃N₅/FTO	nitridation & electrophoresis deposition	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	NR		3.46		NR		26%-400 nm -1.2 V_RHE			2 h decayed by 25% at 1.2 V_RHE		[132]
	Co(OH)_x/Ta₃N₅/Ta	thermal oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH13.6)	0.82		5.5		0.51% at 1.06 V_RHE		50%-400-470 nm-1.23 V_RHE			2 h decayed by 55% at 1.23 V_RHE		[133]
	CoPi/Co(OH)_x/NiFe- LDH/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	anodization & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)	NR		6.3		NR		NR			2 h decayed by 10% at 1.23 V_RHE		[209]
	CoPi/Co(OH)₂/Ta₃N₅ NT/Ta	anodization & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	~0.88		6		NR		NR			NR		[91]
	Fe-Ni-Co/Ta₃N₅/Ta	electrodeposition & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.77		4		NR		45%-400 nm -1.23 V_RHE			2 h decayed by 4% at 1.23 V_RHE		[210]
	CoGeO₂(OH)₂/ Ta₃N₅/Ta	thermal oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.7		3.5		NR		NR			NR		[211]
	NiFe-LDH/Ta₃N₅/Ta	carbonate-assisted nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	~0.7		6		NR		~58%-550 nm-1.23 V_RHE			1 h decayed by 18% at 1.23 V_RHE		[146]
	N_i0.9Fe_0.1OOH/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	molten salt method	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.65		4.65		NR		NR			Not good		[212]
	N_i0.9Fe_0.1OOH/ Ta₃N₅/Ta	molten salt method	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.6		5.6		NR		NR			Not good		[147]
	Co(OH)₂/CoPi/ Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ti	hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.72		3.8		NR		51%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE			20 min decayed by 10% at 1.23 V_RHE		[213]
	CoPi/Co(OH)_x/ Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	anodization & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	NR		~2.3		NR		~90%-350 nm-1.23 V_RHE			20 min decayed by 30% at 1.15 V_RHE		[214]
	Co(OH)_x/ Ta₃N₅-X-Y/Ta	two-step-flame-heating & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	NR		6.8		NR		NR			NR		[215]
	CoNiFe-LDHs/ Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	anodization & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	~0.45		3.59		0.56% at 0.9 V_RHE		NR			all stable after 0.5 h at 1.23 V_RHE		[216]
	IrO_x/Ta₃N₅/GaN/Al₂O₃	magnetron sputtering & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 HClO₄ (pH 0.7)	0.7		3		0.5% at 0.78 V_RHE		NR			4 h decayed by 22% at 1.23 V_RHE		[217]
	Ni_yFe₁_−yO_x/Cubic Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.35		9.8		1.66 % at ~0.95 V_RHE		NR			3 h keep above 6.3 mA cm⁻²at 1.23 V_RHE		[148]
	NiFe/Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	chemical vapor deposition	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)	0.3		11.2		1.46% at 0.94V_RHE		~58%-400 nm-1 V_RHE			30 min decayed by 21% at 1.23 V_RHE		[218]
Surface protection layer	Co(OH)_x/MgO/Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	anodization & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	NR		~6		NR		NR			NR		[102]
	TiO₂/Ta₃N₅/Ta	oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.95		2.46		NR		NR			NR		[159]
	Ni(OH)_x/FeOOH/TiO₂/Ta₃N₅/Ta	oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	~0.7		6.4		0.72% at 1.02 V_RHE		~50%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE			NR		[160]
	CoPi/GaN/Ta₃N₅/Ta	sputtering & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)	0.65		~8.3		~1.5% at 0.9 V_RHE		NR			over 10 h at 1.0 V_RHE		[165]
	pyridine/Ta₃N₅/Ta	oxidation & nitridation	0.1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13)	~0.65		4.4		0.45% at 1.02 V_RHE		72%-500 nm-1.23 V_RHE			5 h no obvious decayed at 1.23 V_RHE		[168]
	g-C₃N₄/Ta₃N₅NTs/Si	magnetron sputtering, anodization & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 12.5)	~0.45		0.59		NR		22.29%-442 nm-1.23 V_RHE			2 h decayed by 16% at 1.23 V_RHE		[219]
	CeO_x/NiFeO_x/Fh/ AlO_x/Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)	NR		11.8		NR		(90-100%)-(450-490 nm)-1.23 V_RHE			120 h decayed by 0% at 1.23 V_RHE		[166]
	Co₃O₄/Fh/AlO_x/Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	NR		12.5		1.8% at 0.9 V_RHE		(90%-100%)-(510-550 nm)-1.23 V_RHE			24 h decayed by 10% at 1.23 V_RHE		[161]

Table 2 Interfacial strategies for enhancing PEC performance of Ta3N5 photoanodes.

Strategy	Photoanode	Method	Electrolyte		V_op (V_RHE)		J (mA cm^-2) @ 1.23V_RHE		HC-STH		IPCE	Stability		Ref
Interface engineering	Co:Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, impregnation & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		NR		~1.47		NR		NR	0.7 h decayed by ~0.4% at 1.39 V_RHE		[130]
	CoPi/Mg:GaN/ Ta₃N₅/Ta	sputtering, nitridation & N₂ post annealed	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0		0.2		NR		~3.51%-420 nm-1.23 V_RHE	1 h decayed by 50% at 1.23 V_RHE		[119]
	Cu₂O nanoparticles/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	molten salt method	0.1 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₄ + 0.1 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₃ (pH 10.2)		0.326		~8.2		NR		60%-380 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR		[131]
	Co₃O₄/La:Ta₃N₅/Ta	oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		~0.8		8.2		NR		60%-500 nm-1.23 V_RHE	20 min decayed by 30% at 1.23 V_RHE		[202]
	CoOOH/SrTaO₂N/ Ta₃N₅NRs/Ta	molten salt method	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		~1.65		NR		NR	1 h decayed by 60% at 1 V_RHE		[203]
	FeNiO_x/BaTaO₂N/ Ta₃N₅NRs/Ta	glancing angle deposition, dip-coating & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		NR		4.5		NR		35%-450 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR		[87]
	Co₃O₄/Fh/Ta₃N₅/ GaN/Ta/Ti	particle-transfer method	0.2 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.8		4.2		0.43% at 1 V_RHE		~8.8%-550 nm-1 V_RHE	NR		[127]
	NiCoFe-B_i/Mg:GaN/ Ta₃N₅/In:GaN/Nb	electron beam evaporation, atomic layer deposition & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)		0.38		9.3		3.46% at ~0.77 V_RHE		90%-400 nm-1.0 V_RHE	10 h decayed by 20% at 1.0 V_RHE		[128]
	Co₃O₄/Fh/Cubic Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, impregnation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		5.2		NR		NR	6 h decayed by 6% at 1.23 V_RHE		[120]
	Ni(OH)_x/MoO₃/ Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 LiOH (pH 12)		0.25		1.34		NR		~13%-400 nm-1.2 V_RHE	24 h decayed by ~5% at 1.23 V_RHE		[121]
	Co complex and Ir complex/Ni(OH)_x/ fh/TiO_x/Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		NR		12.1		2.5% at 0.9 V_RHE		97%-450 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR		[44]
	CoPi/Ni(OH)_x/CoO_x/ Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 LiOH (pH 12.0)		NR		4.8		NR		NR	30 h decayed by ~18% at 1.23 V_RHE		[122]
	Co(OH)_x/Ta₃N₅/ NbN_x/Ta/Ti	magnetron sputtering, oxidation & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.8		3.5		NR		45%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR		[125]
	Ta₃N₅/TaON/FTO	flux-assisted nitriding & electrophoresis deposition	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)		0.65		1.6		NR		~15%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE	NR		[204]
	Ta₃N₅/FTO	atomic layer deposition	0.1 mol L^-1 K₄[Fe(CN)₆] (pH 7)		0.3		2.4		NR		25%-450 nm-1.0 V_RHE	NR		[205]
	Ta₃N₅/Ta	plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.7		8.1		NR		67%-500 nm-1.23 V_RHE	10 min decayed by 44% at 1.23 V_RHE		[126]
	NiFeO_x/Ta₃N₅/SiO₂	magnetron sputtering & nitridation	0.2 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)		0.65		6		1.0% at 0.92 V_RHE		~70%-420 nm-1.2 V_RHE	NR		[206]
	NiFeO_x/Ta₃N₅/SiO₂	magnetron sputtering, oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)	0.65		5.1		6.3% at 1.23 V_RHE		NR			3 h decayed by 19% at 1.23 V_RHE		[207]
	NiFeO_x/Ta₃N₅/SiO₂	magnetron sputtering & nitridation	0.2 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)	0.65		5.9		1% at 0.95 V_RHE		65%-420 nm -1.23 V_RHE			NR		[208]
Co-catalyst modification	IrO₂/Ta₃N₅/FTO	nitridation & electrophoresis deposition	0.1 mol L^-1 Na₂SO₄ (pH 6)	-0.15		~3.9		NR		31%-500 nm -1.15 V_RHE			1 h decayed by 65% at 1.15 V_RHE		[135]
	Co₃O₄/Ta₃N₅/FTO	nitridation & electrophoresis deposition	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	NR		3.46		NR		26%-400 nm -1.2 V_RHE			2 h decayed by 25% at 1.2 V_RHE		[132]
	Co(OH)_x/Ta₃N₅/Ta	thermal oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH13.6)	0.82		5.5		0.51% at 1.06 V_RHE		50%-400-470 nm-1.23 V_RHE			2 h decayed by 55% at 1.23 V_RHE		[133]
	CoPi/Co(OH)_x/NiFe- LDH/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	anodization & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)	NR		6.3		NR		NR			2 h decayed by 10% at 1.23 V_RHE		[209]
	CoPi/Co(OH)₂/Ta₃N₅ NT/Ta	anodization & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	~0.88		6		NR		NR			NR		[91]
	Fe-Ni-Co/Ta₃N₅/Ta	electrodeposition & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.77		4		NR		45%-400 nm -1.23 V_RHE			2 h decayed by 4% at 1.23 V_RHE		[210]
	CoGeO₂(OH)₂/ Ta₃N₅/Ta	thermal oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.7		3.5		NR		NR			NR		[211]
	NiFe-LDH/Ta₃N₅/Ta	carbonate-assisted nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	~0.7		6		NR		~58%-550 nm-1.23 V_RHE			1 h decayed by 18% at 1.23 V_RHE		[146]
	N_i0.9Fe_0.1OOH/Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ta	molten salt method	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.65		4.65		NR		NR			Not good		[212]
	N_i0.9Fe_0.1OOH/ Ta₃N₅/Ta	molten salt method	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.6		5.6		NR		NR			Not good		[147]
	Co(OH)₂/CoPi/ Ta₃N₅ NRs/Ti	hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.72		3.8		NR		51%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE			20 min decayed by 10% at 1.23 V_RHE		[213]
	CoPi/Co(OH)_x/ Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	anodization & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	NR		~2.3		NR		~90%-350 nm-1.23 V_RHE			20 min decayed by 30% at 1.15 V_RHE		[214]
	Co(OH)_x/ Ta₃N₅-X-Y/Ta	two-step-flame-heating & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	NR		6.8		NR		NR			NR		[215]
	CoNiFe-LDHs/ Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	anodization & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	~0.45		3.59		0.56% at 0.9 V_RHE		NR			all stable after 0.5 h at 1.23 V_RHE		[216]
	IrO_x/Ta₃N₅/GaN/Al₂O₃	magnetron sputtering & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 HClO₄ (pH 0.7)	0.7		3		0.5% at 0.78 V_RHE		NR			4 h decayed by 22% at 1.23 V_RHE		[217]
	Ni_yFe₁_−yO_x/Cubic Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.35		9.8		1.66 % at ~0.95 V_RHE		NR			3 h keep above 6.3 mA cm⁻²at 1.23 V_RHE		[148]
	NiFe/Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	chemical vapor deposition	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)	0.3		11.2		1.46% at 0.94V_RHE		~58%-400 nm-1 V_RHE			30 min decayed by 21% at 1.23 V_RHE		[218]
Surface protection layer	Co(OH)_x/MgO/Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta	anodization & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	NR		~6		NR		NR			NR		[102]
	TiO₂/Ta₃N₅/Ta	oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	0.95		2.46		NR		NR			NR		[159]
	Ni(OH)_x/FeOOH/TiO₂/Ta₃N₅/Ta	oxidation & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	~0.7		6.4		0.72% at 1.02 V_RHE		~50%-400 nm-1.23 V_RHE			NR		[160]
	CoPi/GaN/Ta₃N₅/Ta	sputtering & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)	0.65		~8.3		~1.5% at 0.9 V_RHE		NR			over 10 h at 1.0 V_RHE		[165]
	pyridine/Ta₃N₅/Ta	oxidation & nitridation	0.1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13)	~0.65		4.4		0.45% at 1.02 V_RHE		72%-500 nm-1.23 V_RHE			5 h no obvious decayed at 1.23 V_RHE		[168]
	g-C₃N₄/Ta₃N₅NTs/Si	magnetron sputtering, anodization & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 12.5)	~0.45		0.59		NR		22.29%-442 nm-1.23 V_RHE			2 h decayed by 16% at 1.23 V_RHE		[219]
	CeO_x/NiFeO_x/Fh/ AlO_x/Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)	NR		11.8		NR		(90-100%)-(450-490 nm)-1.23 V_RHE			120 h decayed by 0% at 1.23 V_RHE		[166]
	Co₃O₄/Fh/AlO_x/Ta₃N₅/Ta	anodization, hydrothermal & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 NaOH (pH 13.6)	NR		12.5		1.8% at 0.9 V_RHE		(90%-100%)-(510-550 nm)-1.23 V_RHE			24 h decayed by 10% at 1.23 V_RHE		[161]

Fig. 6. Top view scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of Ta3N5 nanorod arrays synthesized with a hydrothermal process (a) and a through-mask anodization process (b). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [84]. Copyright 2013, Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Schematic process for the fabrication of vertically aligned Ta3N5 nanorod arrays. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [45]. Copyright 2013, Wiley. (d) Cross-sectional SEM images of Ta3N5 nanorod arrays. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [46]. Copyright 2013, Springer Nature. Top (e) and Cross-sectional (f) SEM images of Ta3N5 nanorod arrays synthesized with a glazing-angle deposition process. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [83]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 7. (a) Schematic diagram of Si-Ta3N5 core-shell photoanode. (b) The J-V curves of Ta3N5 on flat Si and nanostructured Si. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [88]. Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. (c) Top-view SEM image of the NbNx@Mg:Ta3N5-NR sample. (d) The photocurrent densities of different samples. (e) Illustration of the charge-transfer/separation process in the core-shell NbNx@Mg: Ta3N5-NR photoanode. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [89]. Copyright 2023, John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

Fig. 8. (a) The SEM images of Ta3N5 nanotubes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [60]. Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society. (b) The cross-sectional SEM images of Ta3N5 nanotubes with a second anodization treatment. (c) Schematic illustration of the synthetic process of Ta3N5 nanotube arrays. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [90]. Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Cross-sectional SEM images of the porous Ta3N5 nanotubes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [93]. Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society. The top (e) and cross-sectional (f) SEM images of Ta3N5 nanotubes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [94]. Copyright 2015, Elsevier Inc.

Fig. 9. Cross-sectional SEM images of Ta3N5 nanotubes with (a) and without (b) Ar/H2 treatment. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [95]. Copyright 2016, Wiley. Top-view SEM images of Ta3N5 nanotubes before (c) and after (d) Ar-plasma treatment. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [78]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. The SEM (e) and TEM (f) images of Ta3N5 NT/NP. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [96]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Fig. 10. (a) Energy band positions calculated by DFT for Ta3N5 with ON and VN defects: Ta3N5 with ON defect, pure Ta3N5, and Ta3N5 with VN defect. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [99]. Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) PL spectra of Ta3N5 showing VN, and Ta3+ defects-related emissions. (c) Schematic diagram of the energetic structure of Ta3N5 with ON, VN, and Ta3+ defects. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [77]. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 11. (a) The J-V curves of different Ta3N5 photoanodes. (b) Band structure diagram of Ta3N5 and Ta3N5:Mg + Zr. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [107]. Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society. (c) Energy band diagrams of pristine Ta3N5, Mg(L):Ta3N5, and Mg(H):Ta3N5 films (I), and the corresponding band bending schematics of homogeneous Mg:Ta3N5 (II) and gradient Mg:Ta3N5 photoanodes(III). (d) Room temperature PL spectra for pristine and Mg:Ta3N5 films measured under 420 nm laser excitation. (e) Low-temperature PL spectra measured at 10 K under 510 nm laser excitation. (f) Steady-state photocurrent for pristine Ta3N5 and gradient Mg:Ta3N5 photoanodes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [31]. Copyright 2020, Springer Nature. (g) Deconvolution of the PL spectra for pristine Ta3N5 and La:Ta3N5. (h) Energy band diagrams of gradient-Mg:Ta3N5 and La:Ta3N5 films. (i) The HC-STH conversion efficiency of the photoanodes calculated from J-V curves. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [112]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature.

Fig. 12. (a) The J-V curves of N2 post-annealed Mg:GaN/Ta3N5. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [119]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) The stability measurements of the obtained photoanodes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [120]. Copyright 2014, John Wiley and Sons Ltd. (c) The stability measurements of different Ta3N5 photoanodes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [121]. Copyright 2015, Wiley. (d) The schematic presentation of the integrated Ta3N5 photoanode system. (e) Current-potential curves of the complex 2/complex 1/Ni(OH)x/Fh/TiOx/Ta3N5(P) photoanode. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44]. Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry. (f) Brief schematic diagram of interfacial energetics for the Ta3N5/CoOx/Ni(OH)x photoanode in terms of PEC water oxidation. (g) Charge-storage quantity of the studied photoanodes versus potential. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [122]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 13. (a) Schematic depicting the thin film transfer method. (b) The J-V curves were obtained from Ta3N5 photoanodes with different back contact layers. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [124]. Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) The Schematic illustration of the separation and transport of photo-generated electrons and holes in Ta3N5/Ta (i) and Ta3N5/NbNx/Ta (ii) films. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [125]. Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Dark-field cross-sectional TEM image of Ta3N5/Ta after nitridation. (e) Current-potential curves for Ta3N5/Ta specimen in positive and negative directions. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [126]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 14. (a) Energy band diagram of Ta3N5/Ta (i) and Fh/Ta3N5/GaN/Ta (ii). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [127]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Bright-field TEM image of the In:GaN/Ta3N5/Mg:GaN heterostructure thin film. (c) PL spectra of four Ta3N5-based films measured at 10 K under 510 nm laser excitation. (d) Schematic diagram of band structure for In:GaN/Ta3N5/Mg:GaN film. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [128]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature.

Fig. 15. (a) Schematic energy level diagrams of the n-type and p-type domains in Ta3N5:Co in comparison with the potentials for water reduction and oxidation. (b) The J-V curves of the Ta3N5 and Ta3N5:Co photoanodes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [130]. Copyright 2014, Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) The charge separation and transfer diagram for Ta3N5-NRs/BaTaO2N photoanodes. (d) Conceptual model and corresponding energy band alignment. (e) Optoelectrical simulations energy band diagram of Ta3N5-NRs and core-shell Ta3N5-NRs/BaTaO2N photoanodes at different biasing. (f) IPCE curves of the Ta3N5-NRs/FeNiOx and Ta3N5-NRs/BaTaO2N/FeNiOx photoanodes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [87]. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. (g) The J-V curves of Ta3N5 and Ta3N5-Cu2O photoanode in sacrificial Na2SO3 electrolyte. (h) Schematic band diagrams for Ta3N5 and the Ta3N5-Cu2O heterojunction. (i) The charge separation and transport in a core-shell Ta3N5-Cu2O nanorod heterojunction. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [131]. Copyright 2019, American Institute of Physics.

Fig. 16. (a) The possible mechanism for the formation of the Ta1-O-Co Bond under PEC Conditions. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [91]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (b) The stability curves of different Ta3N5 photoanodes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [132]. Copyright 2012, Wiley. (c) The equivalent circuit used for water oxidation at Ta3N5 nanorod array photoelectrodes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [82]. Copyright 2013, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) The J-V curves of different Ta3N5 photoanodes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [141]. Copyright 2023, Wiley-VCH Verlag. (e) Schematic illustrations of the charge transfer process and PEC water oxidation reaction for NiyFe1?yOx/Ta3N5 photoanodes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [148]. Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society. (f) Schematic structure of the NiCoFe-Bi catalyst. (g) The proposed Co-catalyzed self-healing mechanism of the NiCoFe-Bi catalyst. (h) Chronopotentiometry tests of the NiCoFe-Bi catalysts on FTO substrate at 10 mA cm-2. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [149]. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature.

Fig. 17. (a) The evolution of Ta3N5 surface energetics. The current-potential (b) and stability (c) curves of Ta3N5 with and without MgO as a protection layer. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [102]. Copyright 2016, Elsevier Inc. (d) The J-V curves of different Ta3N5 photoanodes. (e) Chronoamperometry measurement of the Ta3N5/AlOx/Fh/NiFeOx/CeOx photoanode Reprinted with permission from Ref. [166]. Copyright 2021, Royal Society of Chemistry. (f) The stability measurement for the CoPi/GaN/Ta3N5(black) and CoPi/Ta3N5(pink) photoanodes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [165]. Copyright 2017, John Wiley and Sons Ltd. (g) Schematic illustration of the working principles of Ta3N5/Ta and pyridine/Ta3N5/Ta for PEC water splitting. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [168]. Copyright 2020, American Institute of Physics.

Fig. 18. The relationship between the photocurrent density, stability, and photogenerated charge of Ta3N5 photoanodes.

Table 3 The performances of Ta3N5-based tandem devices.

Photoanodes \|\| Photocathode/PV-cell	Method	Electrolyte	J (mA cm^-2) at 1.23V_RHE	Stability (Tandem cell)	STH (%)	Ref.
Ta₃N₅ NTs/Ta \|\| GaN NWs/n⁺-p Si	anodization & nitridation	0.4 mol L^-1 K₄[Fe(CN)₆] + KOH (pH 12)	~12	NR	3.0	[176]
NiFeO_x/Mg:Ta₃N₅/CNTs \|\| ZnSe:CIGS	magnetron sputtering & nitridation	0.5 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)	~1.65	STH 1 h decayed by ~79.5%	0.06	[177]
NiFeO_x/Ta₃N₅/GaN/Al₂O₃ \|\| Pt/Ni/dual-CuInSe₂	magnetron sputtering & nitridation	0.2 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)	6.3	STH 15 min decayed by 28.5%	7.7	[181]
NiFeO_x/Ta₃N₅/SiO₂ \|\| Pt/TiO₂/CdS/LTCA:Al	magnetron sputtering & nitridation	0.1 mol L^-1 K₂HPO₄ + KOH (pH 13)	4.4	STH 10 min decayed by ~44.4%	0.04	[178]
NiFeO_x/Ta₃N₅/GaN/Al₂O₃ \|\| Pt/Ni/dual-CuInSe₂	magnetron sputtering & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.8)	7.4	STH 2 h decayed by ~55.5%	9	[182]
FeNiCoO_x/Ta₃N₅NRs/TF/GaN/ Al₂O₃ \|\| Pt/Ni/dual-CuInSe₂	glancing angle deposition & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 13.6)	10.8	STH 6.7 h decayed by ~17.3%	12.1	[183]
NiFeO_x-CH₃CN/Ta₃N₅ NRs/GaN/ Al₂O₃ \|\| Pt/Ni/dual-CuInSe₂	glancing angle deposition & nitridation	1 mol L^-1 KOH (pH 14)	~6.8	STH 30 min decayed by ~6%	8.2	[220]

Fig. 19. (a) The working principle of a PEC tandem cell with Ohmic contact. The schematic of the wired PEC tandem cell under parallel illumination (b) and tandem illumination (c). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [175]. Copyright 2016, Wiley. (d) PEC-PV tandem cell for unbiased overall water splitting. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [48]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 20. (a) Schematic illustration of the tandem PEC cell. (b) The energy band diagram under illumination shows the charge separation and flow charts of the system. (c) The overlay of the reduction and oxidation curves of tandem PEC cells. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [176]. Copyright 2017, Wiley. (d) A tandem-type PEC cell consisting of the Mg:Ta3N5 photoanode and a ZnSe:CIGS-based photocathode behind the semi-transparent photoanode. (e) The J-V curves for a Mg:Ta3N5/CNT photoanode as a top cell and a ZnSe:CIGS photocathode with and without the top cell. (f) The corresponding enlarged graph shows the overlap of the respective current-potential curves. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [177]. Copyright 2019, Wiley. (g) Photograph of parallel PEC cell consisting of Ta3N5 photoanode and LTCA:Al photocathode. (h) Photograph of tandem PEC cell composed of NiFeOx/Ta3N5/SiO2 transparent photoanode and Pt/TiO2/CdS/LTCA:Al photocathode. (i) Current-potential curves for a NiFeOx/Ta3N5/Ta photoanode and a Pt/TiO2/CdS/LTCA:Al photocathode. (j) The stability curve for a parallel PEC cell composed of a NiFeOx/Ta3N5/Ta photoanode and a Pt/TiO2/CdS/LTCA:Al photocathode. (k) The J-V curves for a NiFeOx/Ta3N5/SiO2 transparent photoanode and a Pt/TiO2/CdS/LTCA:Al photocathode, with and without the Ta3N5/SiO2 photoanode. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [178]. Copyright 2021, MDPI.

Fig. 21. (a) Schematic illustration of overall water splitting by tandem PEC cell composed of a transparent Ta3N5 photoanode on the front side and a Pt/Ni/dual-CuInSe2 electrode on the backside. (b) Current-potential curves for NiFeOx/Ta3N5/GaN/Al2O3 transparent photoanode and series-connected dual-CuInSe2 due to light transmitted from Ta3N5 transparent photoanode. (c) STH values as a function of reaction time for tandem PEC cells. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [181]. Copyright 2019, John Wiley and Sons Ltd. (d) Schematic diagram of Ta3N5-CuInSe2-based tandem device. (e) Current-potential curves of Ta3N5 photoanode (in front) and dual-CuInSe2 PV cells (behind photoanode). (f) Time evolution of STH conversion efficiency and current density of the tandem cell. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [182]. Copyright 2022, Royal Society of Chemistry. (g) Schematic diagram and working principle of tandem device comprised of serially connected semi-transparent Ta3N5 photoanode with dual-CuInSe2 photovoltaic cells and Pt/Ni electrode. (h) The J-V curves of dual-CuInSe2 cells (dashed line: standalone; solid line: behind photoanode) and Ta3N5-NR photoanode. (i) Evolution of current with time of the tandem device (two-electrode configuration). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [183]. Copyright 2023, Wiley.

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