Advances in metal-free carbon catalysts for acetylene hydrochlorination: From heteroatom doping to intrinsic defects over the past decade

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(24)60245-7

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2025, Vol. 70: 8-43.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(24)60245-7

• Reviews • Previous Articles Next Articles

Advances in metal-free carbon catalysts for acetylene hydrochlorination: From heteroatom doping to intrinsic defects over the past decade

Shuhao Wei, Guojun Lan^*(), Yiyang Qiu, Di Lin, Wei Kong, Ying Li^*()

Institute of Industrial Catalysis, College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou310014, Zhejiang, China

Received:2025-01-19 Accepted:2025-02-14 Online:2025-03-18 Published:2025-03-20
Contact: * E-mail: liying@zjut.edu.cn (Y. Li),languojun@zjut.edu.cn (G. Lan).
About author:Guojun Lan (Institute of Industrial catalysis, College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology) received his B. Sc., and PhD degree from Zhejiang University of Technology in 2010 and 2016, respectively. During the period from January 2013 to August 2015, he was jointly trained at State key laboratory of Catalysis (SKLC), in Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics (DICP), the Chinese Academy of Sciences. He carried out postdoctoral research in the College of Environment, at Zhejiang University of Technology from 2016 to 2018. Since 2019, he has been working at the Institute of Industrial Catalysis, College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology. His research interests mainly focus on the development of porous carbon materials and industrial catalysts, mainly include the design, synthesis and catalytic application of carbon-based catalysts, catalytic synthesis of vinyl chloride, green ammonia synthesis and hydrogenation of biomass derived chemicals in aqueous phase. He has coauthored more than 50 peer-reviewed papers.
Ying Li (Institute of Industrial Catalysis, College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology). Prof. Li Ying received his B.S. degree from Shandong Normal University (P. R. China) in 1998, and Ph.D. degree from Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2005. She carried out postdoctoral research at Institute of Catalysis, Eindhoven University of Technology (Netherlands) from 2005 to 2007. Since the end of 2007, she has been working in Institute of Industrial Catalysis, College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology. Her research interests mainly focus on: carbon catalysis, preparation and application of porous carbon, green ammonia synthesis, and carbon-based solid waste resource utilization. She has published more than 200 peer-reviewed papers and 80 patents.
Supported by:
National Key Research and Development Program of China(2024YFC3907904);Joint Fund for Enterprise Innovation Development of the National Natural Science Foundation of China(U23B20162)

Abstract

Abstract:

The development of metal-free carbon catalysts has garnered significant attention as a promising approach to address the challenges of sustainable catalysis, particularly in the replacement of toxic and environmentally hazardous mercury-based systems for the coal-based PVC industry. Within a decade of development, the catalytic performance of carbon catalysts has been improved greatly and even shows superiorities over metal catalysts in some cases, which have demonstrated great potential as sustainable alternatives to mercury catalysts. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the recent advancements in carbon catalysts for acetylene hydrochlorination. It encompasses a wide range of aspects, including the identification of active sites from heteroatom doping to intrinsic carbon defects, the various synthetic strategies employed, the reaction and deactivation mechanisms of carbon catalysts, and the current insights into the key challenges that are encountered on the journey from laboratory research to scalable commercialization within the field of carbon catalysts. The review offers foundational insights and practical guidelines for designing green carbon catalysts systems, not only for acetylene hydrochlorination but also for other heterogeneous catalytic reactions.

Key words: Metal-free, Carbon catalyst, Acetylene hydrochlorination, Heteroatom doping, Defect engineering

Shuhao Wei, Guojun Lan, Yiyang Qiu, Di Lin, Wei Kong, Ying Li. Advances in metal-free carbon catalysts for acetylene hydrochlorination: From heteroatom doping to intrinsic defects over the past decade[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2025, 70: 8-43.

×
share this article

Add to citation manager EndNote|Ris|BibTeX

URL: https://www.cjcatal.com/EN/10.1016/S1872-2067(24)60245-7

https://www.cjcatal.com/EN/Y2025/V70/I3/8

Figures/Tables 21

Fig. 1. (a) Metal-free catalysts for acetylene hydrochlorination: From heteroatoms doped carbon to DC. (b) Research history of carbon-based metal-free catalysts (carbon catalysts), space-time yield (STY) of vinyl chloride [5,7,16???????????-28]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [5,7,16???????????-28]. Copyright 2014, 2017, John Wiley and Sons. Copyright 2014, Springer Nature. Copyright 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019, Elsevier. Copyright 2015, 2017, 2022, American Chemical Society. Copyright 2018, 2019, 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 2. (a) Overview of active site created on carbons for acetylene hydrochlorination: From heteroatoms doped carbon to carbon defect. (b) The synthetic strategies to carbon catalysts.

Fig. 3. (a) Reaction energy diagram illustrating the key species along the reaction pathway: reactant (Re), co-adsorbed reactants/products (Co-ads), transition state (TS), intermediate product (Im), and product (Pr). (b) The geometries of the substances involved in the reaction path contain the co-adsorbed reactants (Co-ads), transition state (Ts), and intermediate product (Im). Atoms of chlorine, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen are represented in green, blue, gray, and white, respectively [16]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [16]. Copyright 2014, Elsevier. (c) Correlation between acetylene conversion and the -N= content of PoPD polymers [37]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [37]. Copyright 2021, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Acetylene conversion as a function of accessible pyrrolic N sites, estimated by multiplying the pyrrolic N species content by the specific surface area. Reaction conditions: 200 °C, 3.1 mL g-1 min-1, and HCl/C2H2 volume ratio = 1.15: 1. (e) Adsorption structures of acetylene (C2H2) on the catalyst surface. (f) Corresponding adsorption energies (Ea). (g) Projected density of pz states of C sites during C2H2 adsorption [7]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [7]. Copyright 2014, Springer Nature. (h) Fitting analysis between nitrogen species content and catalytic reactivity. (i) Charge density distribution of the HOMO orbital in NCNT, the LUMO orbital of C2H2, and the bond formation between NCNT and C2H2. Carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen are depicted in gray, blue, and white, respectively [17]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [17]. Copyright 2014, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 4. (a) Electrostatic potential mapping of the BC3 configuration. (b) Dipole moments of pristine graphene (p-G) and surfaces doped with g-B, BC3, BC2O, and BCO2 species. Inset: Electrostatic potential maps of the corresponding surface models [25]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [25]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Calculated energy profiles of reaction pathways for the five distinct active sites. (d) Configurations of B or N dopants in single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNTs), including pyridine around a vacancy (1), pyridine at the zigzag edge (7), pyridine at the armchair edge (9), pyrrolic (5), and graphitic (3); (e) Adsorption energies of C2H2 on various dopant configurations; (c) Bader charge analysis for C2H2 adsorbed on doped SWCNTs [53]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [53]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Fig. 5. On-site Bader charge (a) and spin density isosurface (c) for the undoped model carbon layer. On-site Bader charge (b) and spin density isosurface (d) for the doped model carbon layer, providing insights into the catalytic mechanism. C2H2-TPD (e) and HCl-TPD (f) profiles. (g) Charge density difference and the corresponding plane-averaged charge density difference along the z-direction for S-QDs. (h) Projected density of states (PDOS) of S p orbitals in S-QDs and the molecular orbital of C2H2, with an inset showing the charge density difference between C2H2 and S-QDs (isosurface: 0.04 au). (i,j) Reaction pathways for acetylene hydrochlorination over S-QDs [40]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [40]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 6. (a) Adsorption energy (Eads) of HCl on various active sites in N-G and B, N-G catalysts: (I) carbon atoms bonded to pyridinic N species, (II) carbon atoms bonded to pyrrolic N species, and (III) carbon atoms bonded to graphitic N species. (b) TPD profiles of GO, N-G, and B, N-G [18]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [18]. Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society. Charge density difference contour plots obtained via DFT calculations for pyridinic N (c), pyridinic N (d) adjacent to sulfide groups, pyrrolic N (e), and pyrrolic N (f) adjacent to sulfide groups, with corresponding Bader charges for relevant C and N atoms shown in red [20]. (g) Possible catalyst structures with adsorbed C2H2: pyrrolic N (structure 1), quaternary N (structure 2), pyridinic N (structure 3), pyridinic N+O? (structure 4), P-C (structure 5), para-position NP (structure 6), and ortho-position NP (structure 7). (h) Adsorption energies (E?) of C2H2 on these structures. (i) Calculated energy profiles of the reaction pathways using para-position (structure 6) and ortho-position (structure 7) as active sites. Blue, gray, white, and pink spheres represent N, C, H, and P atoms, respectively [39]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [39]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Fig. 7. TEM images of nanodiamond (ND) (a) and ND@G (b). (c) Raman spectra of various carbon materials. (d) Acetylene conversion over various catalysts during acetylene hydrochlorination. Reaction conditions: 220 °C, gas hourly space velocity (GHSV) of C2H2 = 300 h-1. (e) The stability test of ND@G in acetylene hydrochlorination (220 °C, GHSV of C2H2 = 30 h-1) [23]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [23]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 8. (a) The relationship of catalytic activity of defective AC with ID/IG calculated by Raman spectra. (b) Reaction pathways along zigzag (green) and armchair (blue) edges of graphene [24]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [24]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. Correlation between the reaction rate and (c) sp3% in sp2-oriented carbon catalysts, and (d) sp2% in sp3-oriented carbon catalysts. (e) Reaction pathways of carbon materials with varying sp2:sp3 ratios were calculated using DFT. (f) Charge density differences of C2H2 adsorption on the diamond (111) surface with sp2:sp3 = 0.08 and sp2:sp3 = 0.75. Blue regions represent holes, while yellow regions indicate electrons. The charges on the two carbon atoms in acetylene are also annotated [27]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [27]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 9. (a) Raman spectra of catalysts. (b) Acetylene conversion over C700, C900, and C1100 catalysts under reaction conditions of 220 °C and a GHSV of C2H2 = 36 h-1. TPD evolution profiles for C2H2 (c) and HCl (d) on the catalysts. The most stable adsorption structures of HCl (e) and C2H2 (f) [22]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [22]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier. (g) Optimized adsorption geometries of acetylene and HCl on P-g-C3N4 and F-g-C3N4, along with the corresponding adsorption energies. Blue, gray, white, and green spheres represent nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine atoms, respectively. Bond lengths are provided in ?. (h) Reaction energy diagrams for acetylene hydrochlorination on F-g-C3N4-N1 and P-g-C3N4 [91]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [91]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 10. Theoretical investigations. The adsorbed energies of C2H2 (a) and HCl (b) on the plane, out-curved and in-curved surfaces. When the adsorbates are located on the outer side of the curved surface, the surface is called the outward curved surface (out-curved surface) in this work. When the adsorbates are on the inner side of the curved surface, the surface is referred to as the inward curved surface (in-curved surface). (c) The reaction pathways of acetylene hydrochlorination on the surfaces. Reaction states A, B, C, D, and E are described in the main text. Blue, white, and grey balls indicate the N, H, and C atoms, respectively. Reaction pathway of acetylene hydrochlorination on N doped. (d) The TEM of HCDC. (e) Conversion of acetylene in the acetylene hydrochlorination reaction. Reaction conditions: 220 °C, GHSV(C2H2) = 300 h-1, and V(HCl):V(C2H2) = 1.2: 1. (f) The adsorption of C2H2 adsorbed in the per specific surface area of catalysts. (g) Reaction orders of HCl and (h) C2H2 for HCDC and DC. Reaction conditions: catalyst (0.1 g), 220 °C, and ambient pressure. The concentrations of C2H2 and HCl from 10% to 25% balanced in N2 flow. The reaction order of both reactants is indicated by the slope of the fitting lines. (i) Adsorption diagram of C2H2 and HCl molecules on the surfaces of different catalysts [92].

Table 1 The key information of various carbon catalysts in acetylene hydrochlorination.

Catalysts	Active site	Carbon precursor	Temperature (°C)	GHSV (h^-1)	Conv. (%)	STY g_vcm g_cat^-1 h^-1	Ref.
B, N-MC(0.5)	B-N	polymer	220	300	62	0.87	[57]
S-QDs	S-S	quantum do	180	50	66		[40]
CN-800	pyridinic N	ionic liquid	220	360	74	1.38	[97]
0.3PmPD-C-800	N content	polymer	220	150	96.4	0.14	[98]
CTN-700	pyridinic N	polymer	220	40	99.3		[99]
D-GC-800	pyridinic N	biomass	180	36	96		[100]
NPCs-T	pyridine N; pyridinic N⁺O; defects	polymer	180	30	90.9		[101]
Chi800	pyridinic N; pyrrolic N	polymer	220	36	91		[102]
2.5DF/BC-850	quaternary N	biomass	220	45	94.5		[103]
1.00NPC	pyridinic N; pyrrolic N; defects	polymer	220	300	30	1.72	[26]
ACF	defect	AC	180	30	80		[104]
ND-900	defect	ND	220	50	90.6	0.14	[105]
MPF-800	pyridinic N; defects	polymer	180	30	86		[106]
PACP-800	pyridinic N⁺O^-	polymer	180	30	84		[28]
20%[DBU][Cl]/AC	[DBU][Cl]	ionic liquid	240	30	86.7		[107]
U-NC-550	pyrrolic N	polymer	260	200	75.86	1.6	[56]
NC4P (0.5)-0.5	pyridinic N	polymer	260	30	88	0.16	[58]
NC	pyrrolic N	polymer	140	30	47		[108]
PoPD-70-300	pyridinic N	polymer	280	30	95	0.16	[37]
NC-800	pyridinic N; pyrrolic N; defects	polymer	220	30	98		[45]
N@CBC-FE	nitrogen defects	polymer	220	180	60		[109]
N-CB-800	nitrogen defects	waste	220	100	71.8	0.35	[110]
1H-imidazole	pyrrolic N	imidazole	220	30	60		[111]
B-CNDs	BC₃	ponic liquid	220	500	58	1.19	[25]
SBMC-800	pyrrolic N	biomass	200	110	99	0.17	[112]
ND-1100	defect	ND	220	300	83	0.69	[27]
3% S/B-SAC	C-S bond	AC	180	90	45		[72]
NC-800-700	pyridinic N	polymer	260	30	98.7	0.37	[44]
CN-2	pyrrolic N	polymer	220	50	98.1		[113]
CBC	defects	AC	180	36	33		[114]
HMT/AC	quaternary N	AC	220	30	60		[115]
NP-C600	NP-C	ionic liquid	220	30	99.2	1.15	[39]
D-AC-M	defect	AC	220	30	61.6	0.15	[24]
MF-600	nitrogen defects	polymer	220	30	90	0.35	[91]
PAN-400-air-N₂	pyridinic N	polymer	280	50	93	0.16	[62]
3NR/4CAC	nitrogen	AC	220	30	97.9	0.36	[38]
ND@G-900	defects	ND	220	30	85.5	0.12	[23]
[Bmim]Cl		ionic liquids	180	40	35		[116]
S, N-Carbon-2.5	pyrrolic N	polymer	180	50	82.4	0.19	[49]
C1100	defects	polymer	220	36	95.4	0.38	[22]
NPC-800	the nitrogen	polymer	220	30	98	0.28	[117]
17% ZIF-8/SAC	the nitrogen	AC	220	30	81	0.62	[36]
N-MC-G	quaternary N	biomass	220	30	85.5	0.2	[21]
NS-C-NH₃	pyridinic N	biomass	220	26	80	0.70	[20]
h-BN	defects	BN	280	44	99	0.21	[19]
AC-n-U500	pyrrolic N; quaternary N	AC	210	50	92	0.46	[118]
Z₄M₁	pyridinic N	MOF	180	50	60	0.15	[96]
N-OMC-2.0	quaternary N	biomass	180	50	35	0.09	[119]
PANI-AC	pyrrolic N	AC	180	36	76.3	0.20	[59]
B, N-G	pyridinic N	graphene	250	36	94.9	0.29	[18]
g-C₃N₄/AC	the nitrogen	AC	180	50	76.5	0.32	[16]
SiC@N-C	pyrrolic N	polymer	200	30	80	0.11	[7]
N-CNTs	quaternary N	CNT	180	180	10	0.17	[17]

Table 1 The key information of various carbon catalysts in acetylene hydrochlorination.

Catalysts	Active site	Carbon precursor	Temperature (°C)	GHSV (h^-1)	Conv. (%)	STY g_vcm g_cat^-1 h^-1	Ref.
B, N-MC(0.5)	B-N	polymer	220	300	62	0.87	[57]
S-QDs	S-S	quantum do	180	50	66		[40]
CN-800	pyridinic N	ionic liquid	220	360	74	1.38	[97]
0.3PmPD-C-800	N content	polymer	220	150	96.4	0.14	[98]
CTN-700	pyridinic N	polymer	220	40	99.3		[99]
D-GC-800	pyridinic N	biomass	180	36	96		[100]
NPCs-T	pyridine N; pyridinic N⁺O; defects	polymer	180	30	90.9		[101]
Chi800	pyridinic N; pyrrolic N	polymer	220	36	91		[102]
2.5DF/BC-850	quaternary N	biomass	220	45	94.5		[103]
1.00NPC	pyridinic N; pyrrolic N; defects	polymer	220	300	30	1.72	[26]
ACF	defect	AC	180	30	80		[104]
ND-900	defect	ND	220	50	90.6	0.14	[105]
MPF-800	pyridinic N; defects	polymer	180	30	86		[106]
PACP-800	pyridinic N⁺O^-	polymer	180	30	84		[28]
20%[DBU][Cl]/AC	[DBU][Cl]	ionic liquid	240	30	86.7		[107]
U-NC-550	pyrrolic N	polymer	260	200	75.86	1.6	[56]
NC4P (0.5)-0.5	pyridinic N	polymer	260	30	88	0.16	[58]
NC	pyrrolic N	polymer	140	30	47		[108]
PoPD-70-300	pyridinic N	polymer	280	30	95	0.16	[37]
NC-800	pyridinic N; pyrrolic N; defects	polymer	220	30	98		[45]
N@CBC-FE	nitrogen defects	polymer	220	180	60		[109]
N-CB-800	nitrogen defects	waste	220	100	71.8	0.35	[110]
1H-imidazole	pyrrolic N	imidazole	220	30	60		[111]
B-CNDs	BC₃	ponic liquid	220	500	58	1.19	[25]
SBMC-800	pyrrolic N	biomass	200	110	99	0.17	[112]
ND-1100	defect	ND	220	300	83	0.69	[27]
3% S/B-SAC	C-S bond	AC	180	90	45		[72]
NC-800-700	pyridinic N	polymer	260	30	98.7	0.37	[44]
CN-2	pyrrolic N	polymer	220	50	98.1		[113]
CBC	defects	AC	180	36	33		[114]
HMT/AC	quaternary N	AC	220	30	60		[115]
NP-C600	NP-C	ionic liquid	220	30	99.2	1.15	[39]
D-AC-M	defect	AC	220	30	61.6	0.15	[24]
MF-600	nitrogen defects	polymer	220	30	90	0.35	[91]
PAN-400-air-N₂	pyridinic N	polymer	280	50	93	0.16	[62]
3NR/4CAC	nitrogen	AC	220	30	97.9	0.36	[38]
ND@G-900	defects	ND	220	30	85.5	0.12	[23]
[Bmim]Cl		ionic liquids	180	40	35		[116]
S, N-Carbon-2.5	pyrrolic N	polymer	180	50	82.4	0.19	[49]
C1100	defects	polymer	220	36	95.4	0.38	[22]
NPC-800	the nitrogen	polymer	220	30	98	0.28	[117]
17% ZIF-8/SAC	the nitrogen	AC	220	30	81	0.62	[36]
N-MC-G	quaternary N	biomass	220	30	85.5	0.2	[21]
NS-C-NH₃	pyridinic N	biomass	220	26	80	0.70	[20]
h-BN	defects	BN	280	44	99	0.21	[19]
AC-n-U500	pyrrolic N; quaternary N	AC	210	50	92	0.46	[118]
Z₄M₁	pyridinic N	MOF	180	50	60	0.15	[96]
N-OMC-2.0	quaternary N	biomass	180	50	35	0.09	[119]
PANI-AC	pyrrolic N	AC	180	36	76.3	0.20	[59]
B, N-G	pyridinic N	graphene	250	36	94.9	0.29	[18]
g-C₃N₄/AC	the nitrogen	AC	180	50	76.5	0.32	[16]
SiC@N-C	pyrrolic N	polymer	200	30	80	0.11	[7]
N-CNTs	quaternary N	CNT	180	180	10	0.17	[17]

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic for synthesis of SiC@N-C nanocomposite. (b) high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) image of SiC@N-C showing a core-shell-like morphology (scale bar, 2 nm). (c) XPS N1s spectrum for the SiC@N-C catalyst with a total N content of 7.1% [7]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [7]. Copyright 2014, Springer Nature. (d) The preparation process of N-doped AC. (e) The simulated process of amino N doping into AC to form pyridine nitrogen [38]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [38]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Fig. 12. (a) The synthesis of NP-C600. (b) The calculated STY (gvcm hcat-1 g-1) values of NPC600 and other catalyst materials [39]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [39]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. The dual-[pyrrolic + pyridinic N] site (c) and the dual-[pyrrolic + pyridinic N] site (d), the pyridinic N was strongly adsorbed by HCl in this dual N site. The blue, red, grey, green, black, and white balls represent the N atom in pyrrolic N, the N atom in pyridinic N, the C atom in the carrier, the Cl atom, the C atom in C2H2 and the H atom, respectively [130]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [130]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry. Conversion of acetylene over B-CNDs at different reaction temperatures and GHSV (e), at total GHSVs of 1000 h-1 and reaction temperature of 220 °C (f). Insertion: TEM image of used B-CNDs. (g) Specific B content estimated from XPS. (h) The calculated STY values of various metal-free catalysts [25]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [25]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 13. (a) The preparation process of nitrogen-doped mesoporous carbon (N-MC-W) using wheat flour as both carbon and nitrogen sources. (b) Stability test of N-MC-GAC and MCN in acetylene hydrochlorination under reaction conditions of 220 °C, 0.1 MPa, and GHSV = 30 h-1. (c) N 1s XPS spectra of N-MC-G and MCN, showing the nitrogen configurations [21]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [21]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process for N-doped biochar derived from walnut shells. SEM images of 2.5DF/BC-850, highlighting its morphology (e) and SEM images of 2.5DF/BC-850 after use, showing its structural stability (f) [103]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [103]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Fig. 14. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of ZIF-8/SAC composite. (b) TEM images of nanoparticles in 17% ZIF-8/SAC catalyst. (c) The corresponding particle size histograms of the nanoparticles [36]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2017, Springer Nature.

Fig. 15. (a) Schematic diagram illustrating the synthesis process of PAN-derived materials. (b) High-resolution XPS N 1s spectra of PAN and PAN-derived materials, showing the suggested structures of all nitrogen species. (c) Illustration of three proposed models used in DFT calculations [62]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [62]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. (d) Schematic representation of N-doped carbon catalyst synthesis via traditional and sonochemistry methods. SEM image of UAPFS (e) and U-NC-550 (f). TEM image (g) and TEM mapping images (h) of U-NC-550 catalysts, highlighting the distribution of dopants. (i) FT-IR spectra comparing U-APFS and T-APFS. (j) EPR spectra of T-APFS and U-APFS carbon precursors. (k) Raman spectra of the synthesized catalysts [56]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [56]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature.

Fig. 16. (a) Resource utilization of PVC plastics. N 1s XPS spectra (b) and Raman spectra (c) of various of various xNPC prepared with different mass ratios of melamine and PVC (x = 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 2.00) [26]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [26]. Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society. (d) Synthetic steps involved in the preparation of NCs with varying textural properties at a fixed N-content and speciation. (e) Ar adsorption (filled) and desorption (open) isotherms of NC-I, NC-II, NC-III and their pore size distribution calculated via NLDFT method. (f) Time-on-stream (TOS) performance of the NC series is indicated as the normalized yield of vinyl chloride monomer (Y(VCM)) [148]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [148]. Copyright 2020, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 17. (a) The schematic of the formation of Defect Graphene [83]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [83]. Copyright 2016, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Schematic illustration for the synthesis of NC. (c) Peak area spectrum fitting for Raman spectra of catalysts. (d) Relationship between nitrogen content, carbon defects, and acetylene conversion [45]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [45]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (e) The preparation process of the defect-rich carbon materials. (f) The relationship of catalytic activity of defective AC with ID/IG was calculated by Raman spectra [24]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [24]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Fig. 18. (a) Schematic of preparing the D-HOPG sample. (b) SEM image of D-HOPG. N 1s XPS spectra (c) and Raman spectra (d) of HOPG (purple), Ar-HOPG (blue), N-HOPG (red), and D-HOPG (black). (e,f) Preparation and structural characterization of high-defect density porous carbon [80]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [80]. Copyright 2019, Springer Nature. (e) Design and fabrication schematic diagram of high-defect density porous carbon (HDPC). (g) TEM image of ZnO@ZIF-7. (h) HRTEM image of a representative ZnO QD encapsulated by ZIF-7. (i) High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) of HDPC. (j) Magnification of one segment of the HRTEM after fast Fourier transformation (FFT) filtering. (k) EPR spectrum of LDPC and HDPC [82]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [82]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Fig. 19. (a,b) The reaction pathways of acetylene hydrochlorination on the surfaces are followed by the Eley-Rideal (ER) mechanism. (c) The reaction pathways of acetylene hydrochlorination on the surfaces are followed by the Langmuir-Hinshelwood (LH) mechanism. (d) Long-term evaluations of NC600, NC700, and NC900 catalysts. Reaction conditions: 180 °C, GHSV = 90 h-1, V(HCl)/V(C2H2) = 1.2 and P = 1 bar. The optimized structures along the pathway are shown at the bottom [130]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [130]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry. (e) Optimized structure of C2H2 adsorption and HCl adsorption on pristine, mono- and divacancy, Stone Wales defect, armchair edge, and zigzag edge defected SWCNTs. The gray, white, green, and magenta colors represent carbon atoms in SWCNT, hydrogen atoms, chlorine atoms, and carbon atoms in acetylene molecules, respectively. (f) The reaction pathway of acetylene hydrochlorination. TS1 and TS2 signify the transition states. The zero points for energy represent the reactants (HCl and C2H2) in the gas phase and defected SWCNT. The adsorption energy and the barrier are measured in eV. The structures A, B, C, D, and F on these reaction pathways are also included [155]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [155]. Copyright 2020, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 20. (a) The acetylene conversion over time of catalysts with different boron additions and modifications at 30 h-1, reaction conditions: 220 °C, and the volume ratio of hydrogen chloride to acetylene is 1.2:1. (b) Ar-TPD-MS of used catalysts, m/e = 78. C2H2-TPSR of D-NMCS (c) and D-BNMCS-0.5 (d). The polymerization reaction paths of acetylene on different models: N-doped model (e), B, N co-doped model (f) [57]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [57]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (g) Stability test of PDA/SiC-700 for a 1000-h and its catalytic activity upon regeneration by high-temperature NH3-treatment. Reaction conditions: 200 °C and space velocity 0.8 ml g?1 min?1. (h) Effluents during regeneration of PDA/SiC-700-p monitored by an online MS (a) in 6% NH3 (He balanced); with m/e = 27 (pink curve) corresponding to HCN and C2H3Cl; with m/e = 62 (green curve) corresponding to C2H3Cl; m/e = 18 (blue curve) corresponding to H2O; and m/e = 17 (red curve) corresponding to NH3. (For interpretation of the references to color in this Fig. legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article) [5]. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [5]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (i) Stability test of D-GH-800 and 0.5ZnCl2/Used-800. Reaction conditions: T = 180 °C, C2H2 = 180 h-1, VHCl/VC2H2 = 1.15.

References

[1]	H. Xu, G. Luo, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 2018, 65, 13-25.
[2]	J. Zhong, Y. Xu, Z. Liu, Green Chem., 2018, 20, 2412-2427.
[3]	C. J. Davies, P. J. Miedziak, G. L. Brett, G. J. Hutchings, Chin. J. Catal., 2016, 37, 1600-1607.
[4]	R. Lin, A. P. Amrute, J. Pérez-Ramírez, Chem. Rev., 2017, 117, 4182-4247.
[5]	X. Li, P. Li, X. Pan, H. Ma, X. Bao, Appl. Catal. B, 2017, 210, 116-120.
[6]	X. Wang, W. Chen, X. Lei, C. Lei, N. Zhu, B. Huang, Coord. Chem. Rev., 2024, 500, 215541.
[7]	X. Li, X. Pan, L. Yu, P. Ren, X. Wu, L. Sun, F. Jiao, X. Bao, Nat. Commun., 2014, 5, 3688.
[8]	K. Shinoda, Chem. Lett., 1975, 219-220.
[9]	X. Liu, M. Conte, D. Elias, L. Lu, D. J. Morgan, S. J. Freakley, P. Johnston, C. J. Kiely, G. J. Hutchings, Catal. Sci. Technol., 2016, 6, 5144-5153.
[10]	Y. Zhang, X. Gu, F. K. Busari, S. Barkaoui, Z.-K. Han, A. Baiker, Z. Zhao, G. Li, Nano Res., 2024, 17, 9594-9600.
[11]	J. Zhang, W. Sheng, C. Guo, W. Li, RSC Adv., 2013, 3, 21062-21068.
[12]	H. Zhang, W. Li, Y. Jin, W. Sheng, M. Hu, X. Wang, J. Zhang, Appl. Catal. B, 2016, 189, 56-64.
[13]	M. Zhang, H. Zhang, F. Li, W. Peng, L. Yao, Y. Dong, D. Xie, Z. Liu, C. Li, J. Zhang, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2022, 10, 13991-14000.
[14]	Y. Fan, H. Xu, G. Gao, M. Wang, W. Huang, L. Ma, Y. Yao, Z. Qu, P. Xie, B. Dai, N. Yan, Nat. Commun., 2024, 15, 6035.
[15]	T. Zhang, B. Wang, Y. Nian, M. Liu, Y. Jia, J. Zhang, Y. Han, ACS Catal., 2023, 13, 8307-8316.
[16]	X. Li, Y. Wang, L. Kang, M. Zhu, B. Dai, J. Catal., 2014, 311, 288-294.
[17]	K. Zhou, B. Li, Q. Zhang, J.-Q. Huang, G.-L. Tian, J.-C. Jia, M.-Q. Zhao, G.-H. Luo, D. S. Su, F. Wei, ChemSusChem, 2014, 7, 723-728.
[18]	B. Dai, K. Chen, Y. Wang, L. Kang, M. Zhu, ACS Catal., 2015, 5, 2541-2547.
[19]	P. Li, H. Li, X. Pan, K. Tie, T. Cui, M. Ding, X. Bao, ACS Catal. 2017, 7, 8572-8577.
[20]	X. Dong, S. Chao, F. Wan, Q. Guan, G. Wang, W. Li, J. Catal., 2018, 359, 161-170.
[21]	G. Lan, Y. Wang, Y. Qiu, X. Wang, J. Liang, W. Han, H. Tang, H. Liu, J. Liu, Y. Li, Chem. Commun., 2018, 54, 623-626.
[22]	J. Wang, W. Gong, M. Zhu, B. Dai, Appl. Catal. A, 2018, 564, 72-78.
[23]	G. Lan, Y. Qiu, J. Fan, X. Wang, H. Tang, W. Han, H. Liu, H. Liu, S. Song, Y. Li, Chem. Commun., 2019, 55, 1430-1433.
[24]	Y. Qiu, S. Ali, G. Lan, H. Tong, J. Fan, H. Liu, B. Li, W. Han, H. Tang, H. Liu, Y. Li, Carbon, 2019, 146, 406-412.
[25]	Y. Yue, B. Wang, S. Wang, C. Jin, J. Lu, Z. Fang, S. Shao, Z. Pan, J. Ni, J. Zhao, X. Li, Chem. Commun., 2020, 56, 5174-5177.
[26]	S. Wei, Y. Qiu, X. Sun, X. Wang, H. Li, G. Lan, J. Liu, Y. Li, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2022, 10, 10476-10485.
[27]	Y. Qiu, D. Fan, G. Lan, S. Wei, X. Hu, Y. Li, Chem. Commun., 2020, 56, 14877-14880.
[28]	F. Li, H. Zhang, M. Zhang, L. Li, L. Yao, W. Peng, J. Zhang, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2022, 10, 194-203.
[29]	L. Feng, S. Ali, C. Xu, S. Cao, G. Tuci, G. Giambastiani, C. Pham-Huu, Y. Liu, ACS Catal., 2022, 12, 6119-6131.
[30]	S. Zhao, X. Lu, L. Wang, J. Gale, R. Amal, Adv. Mater., 2019, 31, 1805367.
[31]	C. Hu, Y. Lin, J. W. Connell, H.-M. Cheng, Y. Gogotsi, M.-M. Titirici, L. Dai, Adv. Mater., 2019, 31, 1806128.
[32]	L. H. Zhang, Y. Shi, Y. Wang, N. R. Shiju, Adv. Sci., 2020, 7, 1902126.
[33]	Z. Zhao, L. Sun, Y. Li, W. Feng, Carbon, 2023, 210, 118066.
[34]	A. Lazaridou, L. R. Smith, S. Pattisson, N. F. Dummer, J. J. Smit, P. Johnston, G. J. Hutchings, Nat. Rev. Chem., 2023, 7, 287-295.
[35]	see 7.
[36]	X. Li, J. Zhang, Y. Han, M. Zhu, S. Shang, W. Li, J. Mater. Sci., 2018, 53, 4913-4926.
[37]	X. Qiao, X. Liu, Z. Zhou, Q. Guan, W. Li, Catal. Sci. Technol., 2021, 11, 2327-2339.
[38]	S. Mei, J. Gu, T. Ma, X. Li, Y. Hu, W. Li, J. Zhang, Y. Han, Chem. Eng. J., 2019, 371, 118-129.
[39]	J. Zhao, B. Wang, Y. Yue, G. Sheng, H. Lai, S. Wang, L. Yu, Q. Zhang, F. Feng, Z.-T. Hu, X. Li, J. Catal., 2019, 373, 240-249.
[40]	R. Chang, G. Cheng, T. Feng, S. Wang, J. Huang, Y. Zhang, C. Jin, Y. Yue, J. Zhao, X. Li, ACS Catal., 2024, 14, 16687-16697.
[41]	Y. Xu, M. Kraft, R. Xu, Chem. Soc. Rev., 2016, 45, 3039-3052.
[42]	P. Yan, J. Liu, S. Yuan, Y. Liu, W. Cen, Y. Chen, Appl. Surf. Sci., 2018, 445, 398-403.
[43]	J. Zhu, S. Mu, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2020, 30, 2001097.
[44]	Y. Lu, F. Lu, M. Zhu, J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng., 2020, 113, 198-203.
[45]	F. Lu, D. Xu, Y. Lu, B. Dai, M. Zhu, Chin. J. Chem. Eng., 2021, 29, 196-203.
[46]	S. Zhao, D.-W. Wang, R. Amal, L. Dai, Adv. Mater., 2019, 31, 1801526.
[47]	R. Paul, F. Du, L. Dai, Y. Ding, Z. L. Wang, F. Wei, A. Roy, Adv. Mater., 2019, 31, 1805598.
[48]	E. Gottlieb, K. Matyjaszewski, T. Kowalewski, Adv. Mater., 2019, 31, 16064.
[49]	J. Wang, F. Zhao, C. Zhang, L. Kang, M. Zhu, Appl. Catal. A, 2018, 549, 68-75.
[50]	J. Duan, S. Chen, M. Jaroniec, S. Z. Qiao, ACS Catal., 2015, 5, 5207-5234.
[51]	X. Liu, L. Dai, Nat. Rev. Mater., 2016, 1, 16064.
[52]	J. Ding, H.-F. Wang, X. Yang, W. Ju, K. Shen, L. Chen, Y. Li, Natl. Sci. Rev., 2022, 10, nwac231.
[53]	S. Ali, Y. Qiu, Z. Lian, S. Olanrele, G. Lan, Y. Li, D. S. Su, B. Li, Appl. Surf. Sci., 2019, 478, 574-580.
[54]	see 47.
[55]	H. Wang, Y. Shao, S. Mei, Y. Lu, M. Zhang, J.-K. Sun, K. Matyjaszewski, M. Antonietti, J. Yuan, Chem. Rev., 2020, 120, 9363-9419.
[56]	Y. Bao, X. Zheng, J. Cao, S. Li, Y. Tuo, X. Feng, M. Zhu, B. Dai, C. Yang, D. Chen, Nano Res., 2022, 16, 6178-6186.
[57]	S. Wei, W. Kong, Y. Qiu, G. Lan, X. Sun, Z. Cheng, Y. Li, Carbon, 2024, 227, 119286.
[58]	C. Zhao, Z. Yi, Y. Xue, Q. Guan, W. Li, Appl. Organomet. Chem., 2021, 35, e6318.
[59]	C. Zhang, L. Kang, M. Zhu, B. Dai, RSC Adv., 2015, 5, 7461-7468.
[60]	S. Chao, F. Zou, F. Wan, X. Dong, Y. Wang, Y. Wang, Q. Guan, G. Wang, W. Li, Sci. Rep., 2017, 7, 39789.
[61]	L. Zhang, C. Y. Lin, D. Zhang, L. Gong, Y. Zhu, Z. Zhao, Q. Xu, H. Li, Z. Xia, Adv. Mater., 2019, 31, 1805252.
[62]	X. Qiao, C. Zhao, Z. Zhou, Q. Guan, W. Li, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2019, 7, 17979-17989.
[63]	R. Lin, S. K. Kaiser, R. Hauert, J. Perez-Ramirez, ACS Catal., 2018, 8, 1114-1121.
[64]	A. Pramanik, H. S. Kang, J. Phys. Chem. C, 2011, 115, 10971-10978.
[65]	T. Schiros, D. Nordlund, L. Pálová, D. Prezzi, L. Zhao, K. S. Kim, U. Wurstbauer, C. Gutiérrez, D. Delongchamp, C. Jaye, D. Fischer, H. Ogasawara, L. G. M. Pettersson, D. R. Reichman, P. Kim, M. S. Hybertsen, A. N. Pasupathy, Nano Lett., 2012, 12, 4025-4031.
[66]	P. Rani, V. K. Jindal, RSC Adv., 2013, 3, 802-812.
[67]	Y. Zheng, Y. Jiao, L. Ge, M. Jaroniec, S. Z. Qiao, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2013, 52, 3110-3116.
[68]	C. Chen, D. Yan, Y. Wang, Y. Zhou, Y. Zou, Y. Li, S. Wang, Small, 2019, 15, 1805029.
[69]	Y. Ding, X. Huang, X. Yi, Y. Qiao, X. Sun, A. Zheng, D. S. Su, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2018, 57, 13800-13804.
[70]	P. A. Denis, Chem. Phy. Lett., 2010, 492, 251-257.
[71]	S. Inamdar, H.-S. Choi, P. Wang, M. Y. Song, J.-S. Yu, Electrochem. Commun., 2013, 30, 9-12.
[72]	X. Qi, W. Chen, J. Zhang, RSC Adv., 2020, 10, 34612-34620.
[73]	Y. Qiu, C. Zhang, R. Zhang, Z. Liu, H. Yang, S. Qi, Y. Hou, G. Wen, J. Liu, D. Wang, Green Energy Environ., 2023, 8, 1488-1500.
[74]	C. Hu, L. Dai, Adv. Mater., 2019, 31, 1804672.
[75]	J. Zhang, Z. Zhao, Z. Xia, L. Dai, Nat. Nanotechnol., 2015, 10, 444-452.
[76]	X. Ma, J. Du, H. Sun, F. Ye, X. Wang, P. Xu, C. Hu, L. Zhang, D. Liu, Appl. Catal. B, 2021, 298, 120543.
[77]	W. Feng, N. Feng, W. Liu, Y. Cui, C. Chen, T. Dong, S. Liu, W. Deng, H. Wang, Y. Jin, Adv. Energy Mater., 2021, 11, 2003215.
[78]	C. Xie, D. Yan, W. Chen, Y. Zou, R. Chen, S. Zang, Y. Wang, X. Yao, S. Wang, Mater. Today, 2019, 31, 47-68.
[79]	Y. Jia, X. Yao, Acc. Chem. Res., 2023, 56, 948-958.
[80]	Y. Jia, L. Zhang, L. Zhuang, H. Liu, X. Yan, X. Wang, J. Liu, J. Wang, Y. Zheng, Z. Xiao, E. Taran, J. Chen, D. Yang, Z. Zhu, S. Wang, L. Dai, X. Yao, Nat. Catal., 2019, 2, 688-695.
[81]	L. Han, Y. Sun, S. Li, C. Cheng, C. E. Halbig, P. Feicht, J. L. Huebner, P. Strasser, S. Eigler, ACS Catal., 2019, 9, 1283-1288.
[82]	X. Wang, Y. Jia, X. Mao, L. Zhang, D. Liu, L. Song, X. Yan, J. Chen, D. Yang, J. Zhou, K. Wang, A. Du, X. Yao, Chem, 2020, 6, 2009-2023.
[83]	Y. Jia, L. Zhang, A. Du, G. Gao, J. Chen, X. Yan, C. L. Brown, X. Yao, Adv. Mater., 2016, 28, 9532-9538.
[84]	J. Zhu, Y. Huang, W. Mei, C. Zhao, C. Zhang, J. Zhang, I. S. Amiinu, S. Mu, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2019, 58, 3859-3864.
[85]	J. Zhang, Y. Sun, J. Zhu, Z. Gao, S. Li, S. Mu, Y. Huang, Adv. Sci., 2018, 5, 1801375.
[86]	S. Yang, S. Xu, J. Tong, D. Ding, G. Wang, R. Chen, P. Jin, X. C. Wang, Appl. Catal. B, 2021, 295, 120291.
[87]	Q. Xiang, Y. Liu, X. Zou, B. Hu, Y. Qiang, D. Yu, W. Yin, C. Chen, ACS Appl. Mater. Interface, 2018, 10, 10842-10850.
[88]	Q. Wang, Y. Ji, Y. Lei, Y. Wang, Y. Wang, Y. Li, S. Wang, ACS Energy Lett., 2018, 3, 1183-1191.
[89]	C. E. Banks, T. J. Davies, G. G. Wildgoose, R. G. Compton, Chem. Commun., 2005, 829-841.
[90]	K. Gong, F. Du, Z. Xia, M. Durstock, L. Dai, Science, 2009, 323, 760-764.
[91]	X. Qiao, Z. Zhou, X. Liu, C. Zhao, Q. Guan, W. Li, Catal. Sci. Technol., 2019, 9, 3753-3762.
[92]	S. Wei, Y. Chen, Y. Qiu, W. Wei, D. Lin, J. Lin, G. Lan, Y. Jia, X. Sun, Z. Chen, J. Liu, P. Hu, Y. Li, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 70, 260-271.
[93]	D. Yao, Y. Wang, K. Hassan-Legault, A. Li, Y. Zhao, J. Lv, S. Huang, X. Ma, ACS Catal., 2019, 9, 2969-2976.
[94]	J. Guan, X. Pan, X. Liu, X. Bao, J. Phys. Chem. C, 2009, 113, 21687-21692.
[95]	X. Wang, C. Han, Y. Han, R. Huang, H. Sun, P. Guo, X. Liu, M. Huang, Y. Chen, H. Wu, J. Zhang, X. Yan, Z. Mao, A. Du, Y. Jia, L. Wang, Small, 2024, 20, 2401447.
[96]	X. Li, J. Zhang, W. Li, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 2016, 44, 146-154.
[97]	S. Wang, Z. Liu, D. Xu, S. Pei, J. Wu, K. Zhuge, C. Jin, H. Cai, R. Chang, Y. Yue, J. Zhao, X. Li, Mol. Catal., 2024, 563, 114240.
[98]	Y. Lu, C. Huang, Z. Lei, M. Zhu, Chin. Chem. Lett., 2024, 110583.
[99]	Z. Shen, P. Xing, K. Wen, B. Jiang, Catalysts, 2023, 13, 432.
[100]	F. Lu, Q. Wang, M. Zhu, B. Dai, Molecules, 2023, 28, 956.
[101]	Z. Guo, W. Peng, J. Li, F. Li, Q. Zhang, L. Yang, D. Xie, Y. Dong, J. Zhang, H. Zhang, New J. Chem., 2023, 47, 14019-14029
[102]	D. Xu, Y. Lu, L. Liu, F. Lu, M. Zhu, ChemistrySelect, 2022, 7, e202104556.
[103]	S. Wu, A. Jiang, X. Zhou, Y. Liu, S. Cao, Mol. Catal., 2022, 532, 112719.
[104]	Q. Tang, Y. Yue, Z. Jiang, F. Li, T. Wang, C. Jin, H. Dong, R. Chang, B. Wang, H. Cai, J. Zhao, X. Li, Catal. Commun., 2022, 167, 106458.
[105]	F. Lu, C. Wei, X. Yin, L. Kang, M. Zhu, B. Dai, Nanomaterials, 2022, 12, 2619.
[106]	F. Li, H. Zhang, M. Zhang, W. Peng, L. Yao, Y. Dong, J. Zhang, Mol. Catal., 2022, 527, 112405.
[107]	X. Dong, G. Liu, Z. Chen, Q. Zhang, Y. Xu, Z. Liu, Mol. Catal., 2022, 525, 112366.
[108]	X. Tao, F. Chen, Y. Xie, X. Cheng, X. Liu, G. Gao, J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng., 2021, 126, 80-87.
[109]	Y. Liu, H. Zhang, X. Li, L. Wang, Y. Dong, W. Li, J. Zhang, Appl. Catal. A, 2021, 611, 117902.
[110]	X. Jin, Y. Hao, C. Liu, H. Feng, X. Li, Y. Zhu, Y. Zhou, Y. Song, J. Hu, New J. Chem., 2021, 45, 19358-19363.
[111]	C. Zhao, X. Qiao, Z. Yi, Q. Guan, W. Li, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2020, 22, 2849-2857.
[112]	Z. Shen, Y. Liu, Y. Han, Y. Qin, J. Li, P. Xing, B. Jiang, RSC Adv., 2020, 10, 14556-14569.
[113]	F. Lu, Y. Lu, M. Zhu, B. Dai, ChemistrySelect, 2020, 5, 878-885.
[114]	Y. Liu, H. Zhang, Y. Dong, W. Li, S. Zhao, J. Zhang, Mol. Catal., 2020, 483, 110707.
[115]	X. Liu, X. Qiao, Z. Zhou, C. Zhao, Q. Guan, W. Li, Catal. Commun., 2020, 147, 106147.
[116]	X. Zhou, S. Xu, Y. Liu, S. Cao, Mol. Catal., 2018, 461, 73-79.
[117]	W. Liu, M. Zhu, B. Dai, New J. Chem., 2018, 42, 20131-20136.
[118]	T. Zhang, J. Zhao, J. Xu, J. Xu, X. Di, X. Li, Chin. J. Chem. Eng., 2016, 24, 484-490.
[119]	Y. Yang, G. Lan, X. Wang, Y. Li, Chin. J. Catal., 2016, 37, 1242-1248.
[120]	L. Lai, J. R. Potts, D. Zhan, L. Wang, C. K. Poh, C. Tang, H. Gong, Z. Shen, J. Lin, R. S. Ruoff, Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 7936-7942.
[121]	V. V. Strelko, V. S. Kuts, P. A. Thrower, Carbon, 2000, 38, 1499-1503.
[122]	C. L. Mangun, K. R. Benak, J. Economy, K. L. Foster, Carbon, 2001, 39, 1809-1820.
[123]	X. Li, H. Wang, J. T. Robinson, H. Sanchez, G. Diankov, H. Dai, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2009, 131, 15939-15944.
[124]	Z.-H. Sheng, L. Shao, J.-J. Chen, W.-J. Bao, F.-B. Wang, X.-H. Xia, ACS Nano, 2011, 5, 4350-4358.
[125]	S. Hou, X. Cai, H. Wu, X. Yu, M. Peng, K. Yan, D. Zou, Energy Environ. Sci., 2013, 6, 3356-3362.
[126]	M. Kopeć, M. Lamson, R. Yuan, C. Tang, M. Kruk, M. Zhong, K. Matyjaszewski, T. Kowalewski, Prog. Polym. Sci., 2019, 92, 89-134.
[127]	J. Luo, H. Chang, P.-H. Wang, R. J. Moon, S. Kumar, Carbon, 2018, 134, 92-102.
[128]	J. Wang, F. Wang, H. Duan, Y. Li, J. Xu, Y. Huang, B. Liu, T. Zhang, ChemSusChem, 2020, 13, 6426-6432.
[129]	G. X. Zhang, H. X. Luo, H. Y. Li, L. Wang, B. Han, H. C. Zhang, Y. J. Li, Z. Chang, Y. Kuang, X. M. Sun, Nano Energy, 2016, 26, 241-247.
[130]	B. Wang, Y. Yue, X. Pang, W. Zhu, Z. Chen, S. Shao, T. Wang, Z. Pan, X. Li, J. Zhao, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2020, 22, 20995-20999.
[131]	D.-P. Yang, Z. Li, M. Liu, X. Zhang, Y. Chen, H. Xue, E. Ye, R. Luque, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2019, 7, 4564-4585.
[132]	J. Deng, M. Li, Y. Wang, Green Chem., 2016, 18, 4824-4854.
[133]	R. J. White, N. Brun, V. L. Budarin, J. H. Clark, M.-M. Titirici, ChemSusChem, 2014, 7, 670-689.
[134]	P. Yu, Z. Zhang, L. Zheng, F. Teng, L. Hu, X. Fang, Adv. Energy Mater., 2016, 6, 1601111.
[135]	X.-Y. Wang, X.-N. Guo, K.-X. Zhu, Food Chem., 2016, 201, 275-283.
[136]	Y. Luo, X. Lin, E. Lichtfouse, H. Jiang, C. Wang, Environ. Chem. Lett., 2023, 21, 3127-3158.
[137]	W. Xiang, J. Ren, S. Chen, C. Shen, Y. Chen, M. Zhang, C.-J. Liu, Appl. Energy, 2020, 277, 115560.
[138]	B. Shao, D. Huang, R.-K. Huang, X.-L. He, Y. Luo, Y.-L. Xiang, L.-B. Jiang, M. Dong, S. Li, Z. Zhang, J. Huang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2024, 63, e202409270.
[139]	L. Gao, X. Gao, P. Jiang, C. Zhang, H. Guo, Y. Cheng, Small, 2022, 18, 2105892.
[140]	V. K. Velisoju, J. L. Cerrillo, R. Ahmad, H. O. Mohamed, Y. Attada, Q. Cheng, X. Yao, L. Zheng, O. Shekhah, S. Telalovic, J. Narciso, L. Cavallo, Y. Han, M. Eddaoudi, E. V. Ramos-Fernández, P. Castaño, Nat. Commun., 2024, 15, 2045.
[141]	S. Chen, Z. Liu, S. Jiang, H. Hou, Sci. Total Environ., 2020, 710, 136250.
[142]	F. Xu, D. Wu, R. Fu, B. Wei, Mater. Today, 2017, 20, 629-656.
[143]	H. Zhao, F. Zhang, S. Zhang, S. He, F. Shen, X. Han, Y. Yin, C. Gao, Nano Res., 2018, 11, 1822-1833.
[144]	O. Noonan, H. Zhang, H. Song, C. Xu, X. Huang, C. Yu, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2016, 4, 9063-9071.
[145]	W. Yang, J. Zhou, S. Wang, W. Zhang, Z. Wang, F. Lv, K. Wang, Q. Sun, S. Guo, Energy Environ Sci., 2019, 12, 1605-1612.
[146]	J. Du, L. Liu, Y. Yu, Z. Hu, Y. Zhang, B. Liu, A. Chen, ChemSusChem., 2019, 12, 303-309.
[147]	K. R. Brown, T. M. Harrell, L. Skrzypczak, A. Scherschel, H. F. Wu, X. Li, Carbon, 2022, 196, 422-439.
[148]	S. K. Kaiser, K. S. Song, S. Mitchell, A. Coskun, J. Perez-Ramirez, ChemCatChem, 2020, 12, 1922-1925.
[149]	W. Wang, L. Shang, G. Chang, C. Yan, R. Shi, Y. Zhao, G. I. N. Waterhouse, D. Yang, T. Zhang, Adv. Mater., 2019, 31, 1808276.
[150]	D. Li, Y. Jia, G. Chang, J. Chen, H. Liu, J. Wang, Y. Hu, Y. Xia, D. Yang, X. Yao, Chem., 2018, 4, 2345-2356.
[151]	X. Zhao, X. Zou, X. Yan, C. L. Brown, Z. Chen, G. Zhu, X. Yao, Inorg. Chem. Front., 2016, 3, 417-421.
[152]	Q. Wu, Y. Jia, Q. Liu, X. Mao, Q. Guo, X. Yan, J. Zhao, F. Liu, A. Du, X. Yao, Chem, 2022, 8, 2715-2733.
[153]	D. Li, C. Li, L. Zhang, H. Li, L. Zhu, D. Yang, Q. Fang, S. Qiu, X. Yao, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2020, 142, 8104-8108.
[154]	X. Zhou, L. Kang, Colloids Surf. A, 2020, 603, 20, 125230.
[155]	S. Ali, M. B. A. Khan, S. A. Khan, Noora, Int. J. Quantum. Chem., 2020, 120, e26418.

Advances in metal-free carbon catalysts for acetylene hydrochlorination: From heteroatom doping to intrinsic defects over the past decade

RichHTML

PDF (PC)

Knowledge

Abstract

Cite this article

share this article

share this article

Figures/Tables 21

References

Related Articles 15

Recommended Articles

Metrics

[1]	Shuhao Wei, Ye Chen, Yiyang Qiu, Wei Kong, Di Lin, Jiarong Li, Guojun Lan, Yi Jia, Xiucheng Sun, Zaizhe Cheng, Jian Liu, P. Hu, Ying Li. The curvature structure unlocks an ultra-efficient metal-free carbon catalyst surpassing gold for acetylene hydrochlorination [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2025, 70(3): 260-271.
[2]	Haoming Huang, Qingqing Lin, Qing Niu, Jiangqi Ning, Liuyi Li, Jinhong Bi, Yan Yu. Metal-free photocatalytic reduction of CO₂ on a covalent organic framework-based heterostructure [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2024, 60(5): 201-208.
[3]	Zhichao Wang, Mengfan Wang, Yunfei Huan, Tao Qian, Jie Xiong, Chengtao Yang, Chenglin Yan. Defect and interface engineering for promoting electrocatalytic N-integrated CO₂ co-reduction [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2024, 57(2): 1-17.
[4]	Mengna Wang, Qi Wang, Tianfu Liu, Guoxiong Wang. Unexpected effect of second-shell defect in iron-nitrogen-carbon catalyst for electrochemical CO₂ reduction reaction: A DFT study [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2024, 66(11): 247-256.
[5]	Xiaohan Wang, Han Tian, Xu Yu, Lisong Chen, Xiangzhi Cui, Jianlin Shi. Advances and insights in amorphous electrocatalyst towards water splitting [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2023, 51(8): 5-48.
[6]	Bo Zhou, Jianqiao Shi, Yimin Jiang, Lei Xiao, Yuxuan Lu, Fan Dong, Chen Chen, Tehua Wang, Shuangyin Wang, Yuqin Zou. Enhanced dehydrogenation kinetics for ascorbic acid electrooxidation with ultra-low cell voltage and large current density [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2023, 50(7): 372-380.
[7]	Run Jiang, Zelong Qiao, Haoxiang Xu, Dapeng Cao. Defect engineering of Fe-N-C single-atom catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2023, 48(5): 224-234.
[8]	Ning Li, Xueyun Gao, Junhui Su, Yangqin Gao, Lei Ge. Metallic WO₂-decorated g-C₃N₄ nanosheets as noble-metal-free photocatalysts for efficient photocatalysis [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2023, 47(4): 161-170.
[9]	Xingzong Dong, Guangye Liu, Zhaoan Chen, Quan Zhang, Yunpeng Xu, Zhongmin Liu. Enhanced performance of Pd-[DBU][Cl]/AC mercury-free catalysts in acetylene hydrochlorination [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2023, 46(3): 137-147.
[10]	Xiaoni Liu, Xiaobin Liu, Caixia Li, Bo Yang, Lei Wang. Defect engineering of electrocatalysts for metal-based battery [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2023, 45(2): 27-87.
[11]	Cheng Liu, Hurunqing Liu, Jimmy C. Yu, Ling Wu, Zhaohui Li. Strategies to engineer metal-organic frameworks for efficient photocatalysis [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2023, 55(12): 1-19.
[12]	Junhao Yang, Lulu An, Shuang Wang, Chenhao Zhang, Guanyu Luo, Yingquan Chen, Huiying Yang, Deli Wang. Defects engineering of layered double hydroxide-based electrocatalyst for water splitting [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2023, 55(12): 116-136.
[13]	Yu Shang, Yunxuan Ding, Peili Zhang, Mei Wang, Yufei Jia, Yunlong Xu, Yaqing Li, Ke Fan, Licheng Sun. Pyrrolic N or pyridinic N: The active center of N-doped carbon for CO₂ reduction [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2022, 43(9): 2405-2413.
[14]	Hui Zhao, Qinyi Mao, Liang Jian, Yuming Dong, Yongfa Zhu. Photodeposition of earth-abundant cocatalysts in photocatalytic water splitting: Methods, functions, and mechanisms [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2022, 43(7): 1774-1804.
[15]	Jie He, Xuandong Wang, Shangbin Jin, Zhao-Qing Liu, Mingshan Zhu. 2D metal-free heterostructure of covalent triazine framework/g-C₃N₄ for enhanced photocatalytic CO₂ reduction with high selectivity [J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2022, 43(5): 1306-1315.