Triazole ring functionalized poly(heptazine imide): Leveraging donor- acceptor configuration toward enhanced solar-driven H2O2 synthesis

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65093-0

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2026, Vol. 87: 140-155.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65093-0

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Triazole ring functionalized poly(heptazine imide): Leveraging donor- acceptor configuration toward enhanced solar-driven H₂O₂ synthesis

Sue-Faye Ng^a^,^b^,^c, Joel Jie Foo^a^,^b, Karlo Nolkemper^c^,^d^,^e, Zahra Hajiahmadi^d^,^e, Jaya Bharti^c, Nannan Hou^g, Jiankang Zheng^g, Thomas D. Kühne^d^,^e^,^f, Markus Antonietti^c, Christian Mark Pelicano^c^,^*(), Wee-Jun Ong^a^,^b^,^h^,ⁱ^,^*()

^a School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University Malaysia, Selangor Darul Ehsan 43900, Malaysia
^b Center of Excellence for NaNo Energy & Catalysis Technology (CONNECT), Xiamen University Malaysia, Selangor Darul Ehsan 43900, Malaysia
^c Department of Colloid Chemistry, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam 14476, Germany
^d Center for Advanced Systems Understanding (CASUS), Untermarkt 20, 02826 Görlitz, Germany
^e Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstrasse 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
^f Institute of Artificial Intelligence, Chair of Computational System Sciences, Technische Universitat Dresden, 01187 Dresden, Germany
^g CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
^h State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, Fujian, China
ⁱ Gulei Innovation Institute, Xiamen University, Zhangzhou 363200, Fujian, China
^j Shenzhen Research Institute of Xiamen University, Shenzhen 518057, Guangdong, China
^k Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, College of Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea

Received:2025-09-19 Accepted:2026-01-12 Online:2026-08-05 Published:2026-06-24
Supported by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China(22202168);Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation(2021A1515111019);Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Malaysia(EENG/0045);State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University(2023X11);Xiamen University Malaysia Investigatorship(IENG/0038);Xiamen University Malaysia Research Fund(ICOE/0001);Xiamen University Malaysia Research Fund(IENG/0090);Xiamen University Malaysia Research Fund(XMUMRF/2021-C8/IENG/0041);Xiamen University Malaysia Research Fund(XMUMRF/2025-C15/IENG/0080)

Abstract

Abstract:

Light-driven synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) presents an ideal pathway for sustainability as compared to the traditional anthraquinone process. Herein, we introduce a strategic approach for functionalizing poly(heptazine imide) with triazole groups via a one-step calcination process using alkali-metal salts (NaCl/KCl/LiCl). Featuring a donor-acceptor framework that promotes singlet electron dissociation, the optimal catalyst (KNa) displayed outstanding photocatalytic performance, achieving H₂O₂ production at 9.32 mmol L^-1 h^-1 and benzaldehyde (BAD) generation at 8.14 mmol L^-1 h^-1. KNa reached an apparent quantum efficiency of 11.58% at 420 nm, in the absence of noble-metal cocatalysts. It also exhibited an electron-hole utilization close to unity (89%), indicating its efficiency in driving photoredox reactions. Mechanistic studies conducted through electrochemical measurements and scavenger tests revealed that KNa facilitated a 2-electron pathway for H₂O₂production, with photogenerated charges and radicals (electron, hole, O₂^•-, ¹O₂) participating in the reaction. A shift in electron density and enhanced O₂ adsorption observed from computational analysis reflects the donor-acceptor effect of the terminal triazole units on PHI. The versatility of KNa for other photochemical reactions was also exemplified by its simultaneous generation of H₂O₂ (1.11 mmol L^-1 h^-1) and furfuraldehyde (0.75 mmol L^-1 h^-1). As such, this research paves an in-depth understanding of synergistic dual-functional photocatalysts for photoredox reactions.

Key words: Carbon nitride, Photocatalyst, Electron-hole utilization, H₂O₂ production, Benzaldehyde production

Sue-Faye Ng, Joel Jie Foo, Karlo Nolkemper, Zahra Hajiahmadi, Jaya Bharti, Nannan Hou, Jiankang Zheng, Thomas D. Kühne, Markus Antonietti, Christian Mark Pelicano, Wee-Jun Ong. Triazole ring functionalized poly(heptazine imide): Leveraging donor- acceptor configuration toward enhanced solar-driven H₂O₂ synthesis[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2026, 87: 140-155.

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Figures/Tables 16

Fig. 1. XRD patterns (a) and structure (b) of KNa (PHI with terminal triazole units). FTIR spectra from 4000-500 cm-1 (c), 1450-1250 cm-1 (d) and 800-700 cm-1 (e) for K, Li, Na, KLi-Air, KLi, and KNa photocatalysts. (Blue atom: nitrogen; grey atom: carbon; white atom: hydrogen).

Fig. 2. UV-Vis spectra (a) and corresponding Tauc plot (b) for K, Li, Na, KLi-Air, KLi, and KNa photocatalysts. Inset of (a) is a photograph of the samples, illustrating the color differences among them.

Fig. 3. Low-magnification TEM (a,b), HRTEM with FFT inset (c), and SEM images (d?f) of KNa. (g-l) HAADF and EDS elemental mapping images of KNa.

Fig. 4. C 1s, K 2p (a), and N 1s (b) high-resolution XPS spectra for KNa, KLi- and KLi-Air.

Table 1 Chemical compositions of carbon nitride samples obtained from ICP-OES.

Catalyst	Element (wt%)
Catalyst	K	Li	Na
K	15.30	—	—
Li	—	4.91	—
Na	—	—	10.2
KLi-Air	5.58	1.35	—
KLi	7.74	1.63	—
KNa	11.00	—	3.25
KNa12h	9.56	—	1.09

Fig. 5. 13C SSNMR (a), the zoomed-in yellow shaded region seen in (a,b), and 1H SSNMR (c) of KLi-Air, KLi and KNa.

Fig. 6. (a) Solar-driven simultaneous H2O2 and benzaldehyde production for different carbon nitride photocatalysts. Light source: > 420 nm, 100 mW cm-2. (b) Stability test for KNa and K catalysts (Left: H2O2 concentration; Right: BAD concentration). Action spectrum (UV-Vis spectrum: left y-axis; AQE: right y-axis) of H2O2 (c) and BAD production (d) on KNa.

Fig. 7. Literature comparison based on simultaneous photocatalytic H2O2 and BAD production (a) and AQE for H2O2 production (b) (Ultrathin CN [57], TiO2 [58], NiMIL-125-NH2 [59], Bi2MoO6 [60], Hydrophobic TiO2 [61], Ti-doped Zr-based MOF [62], OPA/Fe-Zr-MOF [63], ZnIn2S4/Ni12P5/g-C3N4 [64], g-C3N4/rGO/TiO2 [65], Au doped g-C3N4 [66]). (c) Control tests. (d) Simultaneous H2O2 and furfural (FAD) production by replacing BA with furfural alcohol.

Fig. 8. EIS (a), transient photocurrent response (yellow shaded region denotes light on) (b), LSV (c), and PL (d) spectra of carbon nitride samples.

Fig. 9. Structures of KNa PHI systems with terminal amine (a) and triazole (b) units. (Blue atom: nitrogen; grey atom: carbon; white atom: hydrogen; purple atom: potassium; ochre atom: sodium).

Table 2 Mean net atomic charges (in units of elemental charge [e]) for nitrogen and carbon atoms in heptazine, with standard deviations (σ). Further details are provided in Table S10.

Atom	KNa-PHI-amine	σ	KNa-PHI-triazole	σ
Nitrogen	-0.53	0.13	-0.51	0.11
Carbon	0.56	0.04	0.55	0.03

Fig. 10. Scavenger tests with the optimal KNa catalyst (5 mmol L-1 scavenger solution). (IPA: isopropanol; TBA: tert-butanol; pBQ: p-benzoquinone; AgNO: AgNO3; DPA: diphenylamine; TEOA: triethanolamine).

Fig. 11. RRDE voltammograms (a) and H2O2 selectivity and n (number of electrons transferred) (b) for K and KNa at 1600 rpm in 0.1 mol L-1 KOH electrolyte saturated with O2 (30 min purging). (EOC: onset potential).

Fig. 12. Charge transfer mechanism for simultaneous H2O2 and benzaldehyde production on the optimal KNa photocatalyst (CBM: conduction band minimum; VBM: valence band maximum; BA: benzyl alcohol; BAD: benzaldehyde).

Fig. 13. Adsorption of O2 onto the bridging nitrogen atoms of the model systems with terminal amine (a) and triazole (b) units, showing the differences in the adsorption behavior due to the influence of terminating groups.

Fig. 14. Gibbs free energy change for H2O2 production on KNa.

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Triazole ring functionalized poly(heptazine imide): Leveraging donor- acceptor configuration toward enhanced solar-driven H₂O₂ synthesis

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