Design and preparation of 1D-based S-scheme photocatalysts

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(26)64988-1

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2026, Vol. 83: 24-53.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(26)64988-1

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Design and preparation of 1D-based S-scheme photocatalysts

Kaiqiang Xu^a, Wenjun Zhu^b, Mahmoud Sayed^c^,^*(), Sheng Han^a^,^*()

^aSchool of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai 201418, China
^bSchool of Advanced Materials and Green Chemical Engineering, Hubei Key Laboratory of Mine Environmental Pollution Control & Remediation, Hubei Polytechnic University, Huangshi 435003, Hubei, China
^cChemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Fayoum University, Fayoum 63514, Egypt

Received:2025-09-08 Accepted:2025-10-15 Online:2026-04-18 Published:2026-03-04
Contact: Mahmoud Sayed, Sheng Han
About author:Mahmoud Sayed received his B.S. (2012), M.S. (2017) in Chemistry from Fayoum University, Egypt, and PhD (2021) from Wuhan University of Technology, China, under supervision of Prof. Jiaguo Yu. Currently, He is a postdoctoral fellow at Prof. Jiaguo Yu’ group at laboratory of solar fuel, China university of geosciences, Wuhan, China. His research interest focuses on the design and integration of photocatalytic materials in energy conversion and environmental applications.
Sheng Han received his Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. He is a National Second-Level Professor and Doctoral Supervisor, currently serving as Dean of the Division of Chemical Engineering and Energy Technology at Shanghai Institute of Technology. He has been recognized with numerous honors, including the National Hundred, Thousand, and Ten Thousand Talents Project, State Council Special Government Allowance, the “Hou Debang” Chemical Science and Technology Innovation Award, and several Shanghai municipal talent awards. Professor Han’s research focuses on fine petrochemical processes and advanced functional lubrication technologies. He has led over 90 national and industrial research projects, published more than 410 papers in top journals such as Adv. Mater., Adv. Funct. Mater., and Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., and holds over 160 invention patents, with 135 authorized. He has also received more than 20 provincial and ministerial-level research awards for his outstanding scientific achievements.
Supported by:
Open Project from Hunan Key Laboratory of Application Environmental Photocatalysis(2214505);Talent Introduction Start-up Foundation(YJ2023-7);National Natural Science Foundation of China(22278269);National Natural Science Foundation of China(W2433135);Joint Fund of the Ministry of Education(8091B02052304);Guiding Plan Project of Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps(2024ZD013);Scientific Research Project of Shanghai Municipal Education Commission(2023ZKZD54);Industrial Collaborative Innovation Project of Shanghai(XTCX-KJ-2022-70);Shanghai Leading Talent Program(4621ZK210015-A07);High-end Specialty Oils Technology Innovation Center of Shandong Province

Abstract

Abstract:

Photocatalysis provides a viable approach to address critical global challenges of energy scarcity and environmental pollution. Significantly, one-dimensional (1D) nanomaterials (e.g., nanorods, nanowires, nanofibers, nanotubes, and nanobelts) have attracted great attention in the field of photocatalysis owing to their inherent structural advantages such as directional charge transport pathways, high aspect ratio, and abundant exposed active surface sites. Nevertheless, the inherent issue including rapid photogenerated carrier recombination and low apparent quantum efficiency continue to hinder practical implementation of 1D scaffolds. To overcome these limitations, step-scheme (S-scheme) heterojunctions have been strategically constructed using 1D nanomaterials as fundamental building blocks, demonstrating superior charge separation and enhanced photocatalytic properties. In this review, we comprehensively summarized recent advances in the design and implementation of 1D-based S-scheme photocatalysts for targeted applications in sustainable energy conversion, and environmental remediation. The review was introduced by a historical development of the S-scheme charge transfer model and the typical charge transfer mechanism, followed by a comprehensive summary of the preparation approaches and characterization techniques of 1D-based S-scheme systems. Subsequently, a detailed discussion of the recent advances in 1D S-scheme heterojunction photocatalysts for various applications are provided and the implications of the S-scheme charge transfer mechanism on promoting the catalytic activity are elucidated. Finally, the prospects for the development of 1D-based S-scheme heterojunction photocatalysts are presented.

Key words: 1D materials, S-scheme heterojunction, Charge transfer, Internal electric field, Photocatalysis

Kaiqiang Xu, Wenjun Zhu, Mahmoud Sayed, Sheng Han. Design and preparation of 1D-based S-scheme photocatalysts[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2026, 83: 24-53.

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Figures/Tables 26

Fig. 1. (a) A schematic illustration of different photophysical actions that happened when incident impinges a photocatalyst: (I) formation of charge carriers by light; (II) electron and holes recombination in bulk; (III) electron and hole recombination at the surface; (IV) consumption of separated electrons and holes in the surface reactions. (b) A schematic diagram of the thermodynamic limitations in photocatalytic reactions.

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of type-II heterojunction charge transfer mechanism and its problems.

Fig. 3. Thermodynamic challenges for the liquid-phase Z-scheme mechanism. (a) Proposed mechanism of electron transfer in a liquid-phase Z-scheme system. (b) Thermodynamically more favorable charge-carrier-transfer route.

Fig. 4. Thermodynamic challenges for all-solid-state Z-scheme mechanisms. Proposed electron-transfer route in according to all-solid-state Z-scheme configuration (a) and a thermodynamically more reasonable electron-transfer route (b).

Fig. 5. Charge-transfer processes in an S-scheme heterojunction system.

Table 1 Advantages and challenges of typical 1D nanostructures for S-scheme heterojunction.

1D nanostructure	Advantage	Challenge
Nanorods	controlled facet exposure, short radial diffusion, good robustness, easier alignment	light absorption depth limits, recombination in core, lower accessible surface area, limited internal functionalization
Nanowires	very high surface-to-volume ratio, efficient axial charge transport, good light scattering and waveguiding, stable integration	synthesis control difficulty, surface defects, shading issues, fragility
Nanotubes	inner and outer surfaces, short radial thickness, dual-surface functionalization, vertical arrays possible, enhanced light absorption	mechanical collapse, synthesis complexity, mass transport limitations, inner surface traps, shading
Nanofibers	high surface area (especially porous), continuous carrier pathways, scalable/easy production (electrospinning), flexibility, good adsorption/diffusion	lower crystallinity, large diameter recombination, random orientation, complex structuring, shading in mats
Nanoribbons	tunable edge states and bandgap, large exposed surfaces, good in-plane conduction, integration in hybrid structures, quantum effects	synthesis precision and defect control, edge traps, mechanical fragility, weak absorption if too thin, width diffusion limits

Table 2 Summary of 1D-based S-scheme photocatalysts synthesized by in situ growth methods.

Photocatalyst	Dimensional structure	Synthesis condition	Application	Ref.
ZnIn₂S₄/ZnO	0D/1D	chemical bath deposition	H₂O₂ evolution	[88]
CeO₂/ZnO	0D/1D	solvothermal	CO₂ photoreduction	[89]
Bi₂S₃/TiO₂	0D/1D	hydrothermal	CO₂ photoreduction	[90]
Mn_0.3Cd_0.7S/CuWO₄	0D/1D	calcination	tetracycline (TC) degradation and H₂ evolution	[91]
BiSI/Ag₂S	0D/1D	precipitation	Cr(VI) removal	[92]
CuBi₂O₄/CoO	0D/1D	solvothermal	TC degradation	[93]
Cu₂O/W₁₈O₄₉	0D/1D	wet impregnation	CO₂ photoreduction	[94]
Bi₂Sn₂O₇/Bi₄O₅I₂	0D/1D	solvothermal	BPA degradation	[95]
ZnO/SnIn₄S₈	1D/2D	solvothermal	H₂ evolution	[96]
TiO₂/CaIn₂S₄	1D/2D	solvothermal	H₂ evolution	[82]
Co₃O₄/BiVO₄	1D/2D	calcination	H₂ evolution and N₂ photoreduction	[97]
W₁₈O₄₉/g-C₃N₄	1D/2D	solvothermal	N₂ fixation	[98]
Mo-WO₃/In-C₃N₄	1D/2D	calcination	H₂O₂ evolution	[99]
CoTiO₃/g‐C₃N₄	1D/2D	calcination	CO₂ photoreduction	[100]
Bi₂S₃/g-C₃N₄	1D/2D	calcination	TC degradation	[101]
K₆Nb_10.8O₃₀/Zn₂In₂S₅	1D/2D	solvothermal	H₂ evolution	[102]
Sb₂S₃/Sv-ZnIn₂S₄	1D/2D	oil bath	H₂ evolution	[103]

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process for SS and AS series photocatalysts. (b) TEM image of SS NTs (inset: HRTEM image). TEM image (c), and HRTEM image (d) of 10 AS. (e) HAADF image and EDS mapping of 10 AS. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [86]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Fig. 7. (a) Illustration of the formation route of H-W18O49 NW/MIL-125(Ti) NS S-scheme heterostructures. SEM images (b, c), TEM (d) and HRTEM (e) images of H-W18O49 NW/MIL-125(Ti) NS. STEM image (f) and corresponding W (g), O (h), Ti (i), and C (j) element mappings of H-W18O49 NW/MIL-125(Ti) NS. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [110]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Fig. 8. Morphology and structure of TiO2/CsPbBr3 heterojunction. (a?c) TEM, STEM, and HRTEM images of TC2. (d) EDX spectrum of TC2. (e) HAADF image and EDX elemental mappings of Ti, O, Cs, Pb, and Br elements in TC2. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [111]. Copyright 2020, Nature publication group.

Fig. 9. (a) Schematic illustration of the XPS working principle. (b) Illustration of ISIXPS measurements. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2025, Royal Society of Chemistry. High-resolution XPS spectra of Ti 2p (c) and Bi 4f (d). (e) Schematic diagram of S-scheme charge transfer within the TiO2/Ce2S3 heterojunction. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [90]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

Fig. 10. Schematic illustration of the KPFM working principle before (a) and after (b) electrical contact. (c) AFM image of CdS-PT composite. Corresponding surface potential distribution of CdS-PT in darkness (d) and under light irradiation (e). (f) Line-scanning surface potential from point A to B. (g) The schematic illustration of photoirradiation KPFM. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [139]. Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH.

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic illustrations of the work principles of fs-TA spectroscopy. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [134]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society. (b) TEM image of CdS/PDB S-scheme photocatalyst. 2D mapping TA spectra of CdS (c) and CdS/PDB (d). TA spectra signal of CdS (e) and CdS/PDB (f). (g) Illustration of the energy barrier between the HOMO of PDB and CBM of CdS. Normalized decay kinetic curves of CdS (h) and CdS/PDB (i). (j) Decay pathways of photogenerated electrons in CdS/PDB. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [130]. Copyright 2023, Wiley-VCH.

Table 3 Recently reported 1D-based S-scheme photocatalysts for different applications.

Dimensional structure	S-scheme heterojunction	Application	Efficiency	Ref.
0D/1D	TiO₂/Bi₂S₃	CO₂ photoreduction	CH₄ yield = 7.7 μmol·h^-1	[90]
0D/1D	Sn-doped TiO₂/Bi₂S₃	CO₂ photoreduction	CH₃OH yield = 529 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[150]
0D/1D	In₂O₃/In₂S₃	TC degradation	degradation = 83% (60 min)	[151]
0D/1D	In₂O₃/Co₂VO₄	CO₂ photoreduction	CO and CH₄ yields = 15.8 and 22.9 μmol·g^-1, respectively	[152]
0D/1D	Ta₂O₅/Ag₂S	CO₂ photoreduction	CH₄ yield = 132.3 μmol·g^-1	[153]
0D/1D	CoO/CuBi₂O₄	TC degradation	degradation = 89.5% (90 min)	[93]
0D/1D	W₁₈O₄₉/Cu₂O	CO₂ photoreduction	HCOOH yield = 56.42 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[94]
0D/1D	AgVO₃/CaIn₂S₄	tetracycline hydrochloride (TCH) degradation	degradation = 94.1% (80 min)	[154]
0D/1D	Bi₄O₅I₂/Bi₂Sn₂O₇	Bisphenol A (BPA) degradation	BPA complete degraded within 20 min	[95]
0D/1D	CdS/NiO	H₂ evolution	evolution rate = 7.9 mmol·g^-1·h^-1	[155]
0D/1D	Bi-MOF/ZnFe₂O₄	TC degradation	degradation = 87.4% (60 min)	[156]
0D/1D	iCOF/B₂O₃	H₂O₂ evolution	evolution rate = 9.76 mmol·g^-1·h^-1	[157]
1D/2D	TiO₂/BiOBr	Rhodamine B (RhB) degradation	degradation = 98.4% (8 min)	[158]
1D/2D	TiO₂/Bi₂O₂CO₃	TC degradation	degradation = 86% (60 min)	[159]
1D/2D	TiO₂/CaIn₂S₄	H₂ evolution	evolution rate = 564.7 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[82]
1D/2D	ZnO/SnIn₄S₈	H₂ evolution	evolution rate = 1374.4 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[96]
1D/2D	ZnO/CTF	H₂O₂ evolution	evolution rate = 12000 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[160]
1D/2D	Nb₂O₅/NiO	H₂O₂ evolution	evolution rate = 0.48 mmol·g^-1	[161]
1D/2D	WO₃/Zn_0.5Cd_0.5S	H₂ evolution	evolution rate = 715 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[162]
1D/2D	H-W₁₈O₄₉/MIL-125(Ti)	CO₂ photoreduction	CO yield = 202.37μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[110]
1D/2D	FeCo₂O₄/g-C₃N₄	H₂ evolution	evolution rate = 6303.5 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[142]
1D/2D	Bi₈(CrO₄)O₁₁/g-C₃N₅	RhB and TCH degradation	degradation = 94.5% and 93.3% for RhB and TCH within 60min, respectively	[163]
1D/2D	Bi₂S₃/Bi₃TiNbO₉	H₂O₂ evolution	evolution rate = 810 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[164]
1D/2D	Sb₂S₃/ZnIn₂S₄	N₂ fixation	NH₃ yield of 15.96 ± 0.97 mg·L^-1 (40 min)	[165]
1D/2D	g-C₃N₄/ZnIn₂S₄	U(VI) reduction	U(VI) reduction = 97.4% (22 min)	[166]

Table 3 Recently reported 1D-based S-scheme photocatalysts for different applications.

Dimensional structure	S-scheme heterojunction	Application	Efficiency	Ref.
0D/1D	TiO₂/Bi₂S₃	CO₂ photoreduction	CH₄ yield = 7.7 μmol·h^-1	[90]
0D/1D	Sn-doped TiO₂/Bi₂S₃	CO₂ photoreduction	CH₃OH yield = 529 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[150]
0D/1D	In₂O₃/In₂S₃	TC degradation	degradation = 83% (60 min)	[151]
0D/1D	In₂O₃/Co₂VO₄	CO₂ photoreduction	CO and CH₄ yields = 15.8 and 22.9 μmol·g^-1, respectively	[152]
0D/1D	Ta₂O₅/Ag₂S	CO₂ photoreduction	CH₄ yield = 132.3 μmol·g^-1	[153]
0D/1D	CoO/CuBi₂O₄	TC degradation	degradation = 89.5% (90 min)	[93]
0D/1D	W₁₈O₄₉/Cu₂O	CO₂ photoreduction	HCOOH yield = 56.42 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[94]
0D/1D	AgVO₃/CaIn₂S₄	tetracycline hydrochloride (TCH) degradation	degradation = 94.1% (80 min)	[154]
0D/1D	Bi₄O₅I₂/Bi₂Sn₂O₇	Bisphenol A (BPA) degradation	BPA complete degraded within 20 min	[95]
0D/1D	CdS/NiO	H₂ evolution	evolution rate = 7.9 mmol·g^-1·h^-1	[155]
0D/1D	Bi-MOF/ZnFe₂O₄	TC degradation	degradation = 87.4% (60 min)	[156]
0D/1D	iCOF/B₂O₃	H₂O₂ evolution	evolution rate = 9.76 mmol·g^-1·h^-1	[157]
1D/2D	TiO₂/BiOBr	Rhodamine B (RhB) degradation	degradation = 98.4% (8 min)	[158]
1D/2D	TiO₂/Bi₂O₂CO₃	TC degradation	degradation = 86% (60 min)	[159]
1D/2D	TiO₂/CaIn₂S₄	H₂ evolution	evolution rate = 564.7 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[82]
1D/2D	ZnO/SnIn₄S₈	H₂ evolution	evolution rate = 1374.4 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[96]
1D/2D	ZnO/CTF	H₂O₂ evolution	evolution rate = 12000 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[160]
1D/2D	Nb₂O₅/NiO	H₂O₂ evolution	evolution rate = 0.48 mmol·g^-1	[161]
1D/2D	WO₃/Zn_0.5Cd_0.5S	H₂ evolution	evolution rate = 715 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[162]
1D/2D	H-W₁₈O₄₉/MIL-125(Ti)	CO₂ photoreduction	CO yield = 202.37μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[110]
1D/2D	FeCo₂O₄/g-C₃N₄	H₂ evolution	evolution rate = 6303.5 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[142]
1D/2D	Bi₈(CrO₄)O₁₁/g-C₃N₅	RhB and TCH degradation	degradation = 94.5% and 93.3% for RhB and TCH within 60min, respectively	[163]
1D/2D	Bi₂S₃/Bi₃TiNbO₉	H₂O₂ evolution	evolution rate = 810 μmol·g^-1·h^-1	[164]
1D/2D	Sb₂S₃/ZnIn₂S₄	N₂ fixation	NH₃ yield of 15.96 ± 0.97 mg·L^-1 (40 min)	[165]
1D/2D	g-C₃N₄/ZnIn₂S₄	U(VI) reduction	U(VI) reduction = 97.4% (22 min)	[166]

Fig. 12. The possible structural combinations of 1D-based S-scheme heterojunctions.

Fig. 13. Insights into the charge separation within the S-scheme heterojunction. (a) Schematic illustration of the TiO2/Ce2S3 S-scheme heterojunction under UV light irradiation for photocatalytic nitrobenzene hydrogenation. The pseudocolor plots and transient absorption spectra recorded at indicated delay times measured with 350 nm excitation: pure TiO2 nanofibers (b,c) and TiO2/Ce2S3 nanohybrids (TC5) (d,e). (f) Corresponding transient absorption kinetic traces of TiO2 and TC5 at 645 nm within 100 ps. (g) Schematic diagram of S-scheme charge transfer within the TiO2/Ce2S3 heterojunction. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [175]. Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 14. SEM images of ZnO (a) and ZZS-20 (b) nanofibers. (c) TEM images of ZZS-20. (d) HRTEM images of ZZS-20. (e) HAADF image and EDX elemental mappings of Zn, O, In, and S elements in ZZS-20. Calculated electrostatic potentials of ZnO (f) and ZnIn2S4 (g). (h) Charge density difference of ZnO/ZnIn2S4 (the yellow region signifies the accumulation layer of electrons and the cyan region is the electron depletion layer). (i) Electron transfer mechanism of ZnO/ZnIn2S4 S-scheme heterojunction. (j) Photocatalytic H2O2 evolution performance of different photocatalysts. (k) Stability cycle test of H2O2 production by ZZS-20. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [88]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Fig. 15. (a) Preparation route of p-CNQDs/VO-ZnO composite. (b) EPR spectra of ZnO, g-C3N4/VO-ZnO, and p-CNQDs/VO-ZnO. (c) UV-vis DRS of ZnO, p-CNQDs, and p-CNQDs/VO-ZnO composites. (d) ΔGH* values of g-C3N4/VO-ZnO and p-CNQDs/VO-ZnO. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [183]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Fig. 16. (a) Schematic illustration for synthesis of Cu2O/W18O49 heterojunction. (b) XRD patterns of W18O49, 20% Cu:W, 40% Cu:W, 60% Cu:W, 80% Cu:W and the corresponding amplified XRD pattern (right). SEM images of W18O49 (c) and Cu2O/W18O49 (d). (e) HRTEM image of W18O49. TEM (f) and HRTEM (g) images of Cu2O/W18O49. (h) Photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance over Cu2O/W18O49 heterojunction with different composition. (i) Comparison with the contrast samples. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [94]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Fig. 17. (a) Schematic Illustration of assembly fiber heterojunction photocatalysts. TEM image (b) and HRTEM image (c) of AFSP heterojunction. 2D transient absorption surface plots of Ta2O5 (d) and ASTO-2 (g). Transient absorption signals of Ta2O5 (e) and ASTO-2 (h). The decay signals of Ta2O5 and ASTO-2 monitored at 460 nm (f) and 500 nm (i) (inset of schematic diagram of charge transfer within the ASTO heterojunction). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [153]. Copyright 2023, Wiley‐VCH.

Fig. 18. In-situ irradiation XPS spectra of Ni 2p (a), O 1s (b), Cd 3d (c), and S 2p (d) in 15%NiO/CdS. KFPM images under darkness condition (e) and visible-light irradiation condition (f). (g) Surface photovoltage distribution under dark and visible-light irradiation of 15%NiO/CdS. (h) IEF formation and electron transfer of NiO/CdS. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [155]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

Fig. 19. (a) Photocatalytic H2-production plots. (b) Photocatalytic H2-production rate of different samples. (c) Cycling stability of the MCS/W-6. (d) UV-vis DRS spectrum and AQY of the MCS/W-6 photocatalyst at 380, 450, 500 and 550 nm. (e) Schematic diagram of the S-scheme charge-transfer mechanism in the MCS/W heterojunction system. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [194]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Fig. 20. TEM (a,b) and HRTEM (c) images of the CPB/AgBr heterojunction. (d) EDX elemental mappings of Cs, Pb, Br and Ag elements in the CPB/AgBr heterojunction. ESR spectra of DMPO-⋅OH (e) and DMPO-⋅O2− (f) in the presence of CsPbBr3 NCs, AgBr and the CPB/AgBr heterojunction. (g) CO and CH4 evolution over CsPbBr3 NCs, AgBr and the CPB/AgBr heterojunctions after 4 h of photocatalytic reaction. (h) Recycling tests with four 4 h cycles. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [195]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Fig. 21. (a) HRTEM and HAADF images of MAPB-TCOF. (b) Mapping images of C, N, Pb, and Br elements in MAPB-T-COF. EPR spectra of ·O2- in the presence of T-COF (c), MAPB (d), and MAPB-T-COF (e) under different conditions. (f) Signal comparison of ·O2- on MAPB-T-COF, T-COF, and MAPB under light illumination. (g) Signal comparison of ·O2- on MAPB-T-COF, T-COF, and MAPB with the addition of 4-MBT with blue LED illumination. (h) EPR spectra of ·O2- in the presence of MAPB-TCOF with various thiophenols. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [197]. Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 22. Scheme illustration for the synthesis of Bi3TiNbO9/Bi2S3 heterojunction (a) and TEM (b) and SAED (c) images of the Bi3TiNbO9/Bi2S3. (d) Atomic-level HRTEM image of the Bi3TiNbO9 of dashed box area in (b). (e,f) TEM image of pristine Bi2S3 and its HAADF-STEM image of dashed box area in (e). (g,h) The corresponding lattice distances of the Bi3TiNbO9 and Bi2S3 in (d) and (f), respectively. (i) Photocatalytic performances of Bi3TiNbO9, Bi2S3, Bi3TiNbO9+Bi2S3, and Bi3TiNbO9/Bi2S3 heterojunction under simulated sunlight. (j) Schematic illustration of energy band arrangement of Bi3TiNbO9/Bi2S3 heterojunction upon illumination. (k) Photocatalytic H2O2 evolution performance of the Bi3TiNbO9/Bi2S3 with continuous 13 cycles (1 h foreach cycle) under simulated sunlight. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [164]. Copyright 2024, Wiley‐VCH.

Fig. 23. (a) Schematic diagram for the preparation of WO3?x/In2S3 heterostructures. (b) FESEM images of WO3?x nanofibers at different magnifications. (c) FESEM, (d?f) HRTEM images of WO3?x/In2S3 hybrid nanofibers. (g) HAADF image and EDX elemental mappings of W, O, In and S elements in WO3?x/In2S3 nanostructures. Gibbs free energy diagram of: CO2 photoreduction over In2S3 (002) surface (h) and H2O photooxidation over WO3?x (001) surface (i). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [208]. Copyright 2024, Wiley-VCH.

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Design and preparation of 1D-based S-scheme photocatalysts

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