Engineering electrocatalysts for industrial-current-density alkaline hydrogen evolution: Design principles and future perspectives

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65280-1

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2027, Vol. 92: 65-86.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65280-1

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Engineering electrocatalysts for industrial-current-density alkaline hydrogen evolution: Design principles and future perspectives

Panyong Kuang^a^,^c^,^*(), Zhenrui Ni^a, Sihan Chen^a, Weilai Yu^b^,^*()

^a Laboratory of Solar Fuel, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430078, Hubei, China
^b Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
^c Inner Mongolia Institute of Technology, China University of Geosciences, Ordos 017010, Inner Mongolia, China

Received:2026-07-14 Accepted:2026-09-14 Online:2026-12-05 Published:2026-10-30
Contact: *E-mail: kuangpanyong@cug.edu.cn (P. Kuang),
weilaiyu@ust.hk (W. Yu).
About author:Panyong Kuang (China University of Geosciences) received his Ph.D. degree in 2019 and completed his postdoctoral research in 2021 at Wuhan University of Technology under the supervision of Prof. Jiaguo Yu. In 2021, he joined the Laboratory of Solar Fuel at China University of Geosciences (Wuhan). From 2023 to 2024, he was a visiting scholar at Cardiff University, under the supervision of Prof. Graham J. Hutchings. His research focuses on the precise synthesis and structural regulation of supported, heterostructured, and low-loading noble-metal-based catalysts for electrochemical energy conversion, including water splitting and carbon dioxide reduction. He has published more than 50 SCI-indexed papers and has been recognized among the World’s Top 2% Scientists (2023-2025). He serves as a young editorial board member of Rare Metals, Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica, and Chinese Journal of Rare Metals, and is a member of the Chinese Energy Society and the Energy Conversion and Storage Committee of the Wuhan Energy Society.
Weilai Yu is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST). His research program aims at seamlessly integrating fundamental electrochemistry, surface science, and functional material-interface design toward developing next-generation technologies for energy conversion and storage, aided by an interdisciplinary approach that combines high-throughput and autonomous experimentation with artificial intelligence. He received his B.S. and Ph.D. in Chemistry from Wuhan University and the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), respectively. Prior to joining HKUST, he was an Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry at the University of Toronto and a Postdoctoral Scholar in Chemical Engineering at Stanford University. His notable academic recognitions include the Electrochemical Society (ECS) Battery Division Postdoctoral Research Award (2025) and selection as a Young Scientist at the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting (2022). He currently serves as a Community Editorial Board Member of Materials Horizons, a flagship journal of the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC).
Supported by:
National Key Research and Development Program of China(2022YFB3803600);National Natural Science Foundation of China(22272153);National Natural Science Foundation of China(22479132);National Natural Science Foundation of China(22005232);National Natural Science Foundation of China(22238009);National Natural Science Foundation of China(U23A20102);National Natural Science Foundation of China(W2512051);National Natural Science Foundation of China(22361142704)

Abstract

Abstract:

Renewable electricity-powered water electrolysis is a cornerstone technology for sustainable hydrogen (H₂) production and future carbon-neutral energy systems. However, realizing economically viable large-scale H₂ production requires electrocatalysts capable of sustaining high activity and long-term durability at industrial current densities, where intensified mass transport limitations, rapid gas evolution, and accelerated catalyst degradation fundamentally alter reaction kinetics and device performance. Recent advances in alkaline hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) electrocatalysts have demonstrated that efficient industrial-current-density operation relies not only on intrinsic catalytic activity but also on the synergistic optimization of catalyst architecture, interfacial mass transport, bubble dynamics, and structural stability. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of recent progress in alkaline HER electrocatalysts from the perspectives of morphological and interfacial engineering, intrinsic activity regulation, and durability enhancement, while establishing the relationships among catalyst structure, reaction kinetics, mass transport, gas evolution, and long-term operational stability. We further discuss challenges in bridging laboratory-scale catalyst development with practical water electrolysis, including interfacial microenvironment regulation, catalyst-layer engineering, standardized performance evaluation, and dynamic operation under renewable-energy-driven conditions. Finally, we highlight emerging design principles and future opportunities for developing highly efficient and durable HER electrocatalysts for practical green hydrogen production.

Key words: Hydrogen evolution reaction, Industrial current density, Morphological and interfacial engineering, Intrinsic activity engineering, Durability engineering

Panyong Kuang, Zhenrui Ni, Sihan Chen, Weilai Yu. Engineering electrocatalysts for industrial-current-density alkaline hydrogen evolution: Design principles and future perspectives[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2027, 92: 65-86.

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Category	Strategy	Main function	Advantage	Limitation
Morphological and interfacial engineering	self-supported electrodes	electron transfer mechanical stability	binder-free electrode	substrate limitation
Morphological and interfacial engineering	hierarchical porous structures	mass transport	electrolyte penetration bubble release	structural complexity
Morphological and interfacial engineering	surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	interfacial regulation	hydrophilicity/aerophobicity optimization	dynamic surface evolution
Intrinsic activity engineering	dual active site	H₂O dissociation	kinetic acceleration	site optimization
Intrinsic activity engineering	element doping	electronic structure modulation	electronic tuning	dopant stability
Intrinsic activity engineering	defect	active site generation	electronic regulation	defect instability
Durability engineering	mechanical stability enhancement	catalyst retention	robust catalyst- substrate interaction	limited structural flexibility
Durability engineering	chemical stability enhancement	active phase stabilization	corrosion/reconstruction suppression	stability-activity trade-off

Category	Strategy	Main function	Advantage	Limitation
Morphological and interfacial engineering	self-supported electrodes	electron transfer mechanical stability	binder-free electrode	substrate limitation
Morphological and interfacial engineering	hierarchical porous structures	mass transport	electrolyte penetration bubble release	structural complexity
Morphological and interfacial engineering	surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	interfacial regulation	hydrophilicity/aerophobicity optimization	dynamic surface evolution
Intrinsic activity engineering	dual active site	H₂O dissociation	kinetic acceleration	site optimization
Intrinsic activity engineering	element doping	electronic structure modulation	electronic tuning	dopant stability
Intrinsic activity engineering	defect	active site generation	electronic regulation	defect instability
Durability engineering	mechanical stability enhancement	catalyst retention	robust catalyst- substrate interaction	limited structural flexibility
Durability engineering	chemical stability enhancement	active phase stabilization	corrosion/reconstruction suppression	stability-activity trade-off

Descriptor	Significance
Overpotential	potential required to drive HER
Overpotential at 500-1000 mA cm^-2	practical industrial-current-density activity
Tafel slope	reaction kinetics
Exchange current density	intrinsic catalytic activity
TOF	activity per active site
Mass activity	activity normalized by catalyst mass
ECSA	electrochemically accessible active area
Faradaic efficiency	H₂ generation efficiency
Stability duration	long-term operational durability
Potential/current degradation rate	catalyst degradation behavior
Operating temperature	industrial relevance
Electrolyte concentration	realistic operating environment
Bubble behavior (coverage/release)	gas-transport efficiency
Electrolyzer performance (cell voltage)	device-level evaluation

Descriptor	Significance
Overpotential	potential required to drive HER
Overpotential at 500-1000 mA cm^-2	practical industrial-current-density activity
Tafel slope	reaction kinetics
Exchange current density	intrinsic catalytic activity
TOF	activity per active site
Mass activity	activity normalized by catalyst mass
ECSA	electrochemically accessible active area
Faradaic efficiency	H₂ generation efficiency
Stability duration	long-term operational durability
Potential/current degradation rate	catalyst degradation behavior
Operating temperature	industrial relevance
Electrolyte concentration	realistic operating environment
Bubble behavior (coverage/release)	gas-transport efficiency
Electrolyzer performance (cell voltage)	device-level evaluation

Key strategy	Catalyst	Electrode	Electrolyte	η (mV) @500 mA cm^-2	η (mV) @1000 mA cm^-2	Stability	Stability configuration	Ref.
Self-supported electrodes	Ru-LC-Ni(OH)₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	102	136	500 h@500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[116]
Self-supported electrodes	NiFe₂O₄-HCOO^-	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	397	435	120 h@500 mA cm^-2 70 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[105]
Self-supported electrodes	D-Ni₃Mo/NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	208	232	100 h@500 mA cm^-2, RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	Half-cell HER	[200]
Self-supported electrodes	RH-Ni₉S₈/RuS₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	180	500 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	Half-cell HER	[201]
Self-supported electrodes	NiFeCoCuTi	Ni skeleton	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	134	240 h@-0.08 V RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	Half-cell HER	[48]
Self-supported electrodes	Cu NWs@NiFe-Pt₃Ir	Cu foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	210	239	168 h@500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	Half-cell HER	[45]
Self-supported electrodes	FeCoP/CF	Cu foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	—	14 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[117]
Self-supported electrodes	Mo₂C(O)/MoO₂	Mo₂C-based ceramics	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	212@1500 mA cm^-2	260 h@50-1500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	Half-cell HER	[57]
Self-supported electrodes	NiMo/Mo₂N/ NC(500-R)	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	117	200.6	1000 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	Half-cell HER	[202]
Self-supported electrodes	Ru-CoP/CC	Carbon cloth	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	357	60 h@100 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	Half-cell HER	[203]
Hierarchical porous structures	Ni₄Mo@PDA	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	125	176@1500 mA cm^-2	500 h@500 mA cm^-2 70 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[204]
Hierarchical porous structures	NiW	Ni mesh	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	198	264	200 h@500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[108]
Hierarchical porous structures	Ru-Ni₂P/Fe₂P	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	270	100 h@500 mA cm^-2, 60 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[205]
Hierarchical porous structures	NiCoP@FeNi LDH/NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	181	195	30 h@100 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	OWS	[65]
Hierarchical porous structures	Ni@NCW	carbonized wood	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	385	—	16 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[72]
Hierarchical porous structures	MoNi/NiMoO_x	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	139@1900 mA cm^-2	1600 h@200 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[133]
Hierarchical porous structures	C-Ni_1-_xO	3D printed Ni	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	245	16 h@2.2 V 80 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	OWS	[134]
Hierarchical porous structures	Fe-NiWB/PW	wood skeleton	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	270	—	2000 h@500 mA cm^-2, 60 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[135]
Hierarchical porous structures	MoNi₄@NiO/PN	Ni mesh	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	329	400 h@500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[206]
Hierarchical porous structures	Ni/Ni_xS_y	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	121	—	120 h@500 mA cm^-2 85 ℃, 30% KOH	OWS	[102]
Surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	Ru/(Fe,Ni)(OH)₂/NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	152	20 h@500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	OWS	[62]
Surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	Ni(OH)_x/Ni₃S₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	193	238	1000 h@360 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[63]
Surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	NiP₂@MoO₂/ Co(Ni)MoO₄	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	297	650 h@200 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[138]
Surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	PBSCF-Ni₃S₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	249	500 h@500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	OWS	[88]
Surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	F-Co_xFe_y(PO_n)_z/IF	Fe foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	276	500 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	OWS	[115]
Surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	Pt@NMO-N₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	122	180	300 h@500 mA cm^-2 60 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[140]
Surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	Ni/(Ni,Co)₃N_v	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	—	297	100 h@500 mA cm^-2, RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[207]
Surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	LC-Mn₂Mo₃O₈ @Ni/NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	310.6	140 h@500 mA cm^-2 30 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[208]
Surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	NiFeP/Ni₃S₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	—	270 h@100 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 M KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[139]
Surface wettability: hydrophilicity and aerophobicity	NiFe-O NAs	Fe foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	252.4	311.2	200 h@1000 mA cm^-2, 60 ℃, 6.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	OWS	[209]
Dual active site	S-NiBDC	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	285	310	150 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[155]
Dual active site	Ni₃S₂/Cr₂S₃	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	227	35 h@1000 mA cm^-2 60 ℃, 3.0 M KOH	AEMWE	[156]
Dual active site	RuCo@Ru_SACo_SA-NMC	carbon cloth	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	225	576 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[42]
Dual active site	Ag(S)@NiO/NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	157.2	167	120 h@1490 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[159]
Dual active site	PtNiFe-D15	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	130	217	120 h@1000 mA cm^-2, RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[40]
Dual active site	Ni@CF16	Cu foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	~265	—	200 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[210]
Dual active site	Ru₁-Mo₂C	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	—	200 h@500 mA cm^-2 65 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[211]
Dual active site	Ru-Ni₃N	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	~200	550 h@500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[41]
Dual active site	Pt-HEA-cluster/CeO₂/C	Porous carbon	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	~90	500 h@500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[212]
Dual active site	HEANS	—	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	—	2500 h@1000 mA cm^-2 80 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[38]
Element doping	F-Co₂P/Fe₂P/IF	Fe form	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	229.8	260.5	1 h@2000 mA cm^-2 RT, 6.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[112]
Element doping	P-Fe₃O₄/IF	Fe foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	200@409 mA cm^-2	—	1000 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	OWS	[174]
Element doping	NiCoCu-Mo_0.078/CF	Cu foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	212	100 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[47]
Element doping	Ru/P-Fe₃O₄@IF	Fe foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	—	144	115 h@500 mA cm^-2, 60 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[50]
Element doping	Ru/S-Co₃O₄	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	200	287	1300 h@1000 mA cm^-2 70 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[43]
Element doping	Y₂O₃-Co₃O₄/PCC	Carbon cloth	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	—	346	350 h@300 mA cm^-2, RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[51]
Element doping	NFA-CA	Ni plate	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	—	1000 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[213]
Element doping	Ru-NiV LDH	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	195	—	500 h@500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[64]
Element doping	S-NiFe-LDH/NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	—	362	150 h@100-1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	OWS	[214]
Element doping	Mo,P-CoS₂/CW	carbonized wood	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	289	100 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[215]
Defect	Co_xP_v@NC	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	260	100 h@1000 mA cm^-2, 60 ℃, 6.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	OWS	[190]
Defect	HSD-PtNi/NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	46	63	300 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[39]
Defect	MCu_0.10-BNiMo	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	366	444	10 h@2000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[186]
Defect	Ru/NiMoO_4-_x	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	—	206 @3000 mA cm^-2	750 h@500 mA cm^-2, RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	OWS	[191]
Defect	Ru/MEO_x/NC	carbon paper	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	—	1000 h@700 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[216]
Defect	Ru/MoB-B_v	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	~100	—	100 h@500 mA cm^-2, RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[217]
Defect	Y₂O_2.13@GP	graphite plate	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	266	—	100 h@1000 mA cm^-2 60 ℃, 6.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[218]
Defect	NiMoFe@MoO₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	175	272	1000 h@500 mA cm^-2 60 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[194]
Defect	Fe₉Ni₉S₁₆-(Ni,Fe)S/PNFF	carbon cloth	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	420 @2000 mA cm^-2	200 h@1000 mA cm^-2 60 ℃, 6.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[219]
Defect	(FeCoNiB_0.75)₉₇Pt₃	Cu foil	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	104	200 h@100 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[220]
Mechanical stability enhancement	CuMo₆S₈/Cu	Cu foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	320	300 h@500-2500 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[197]
Mechanical stability enhancement	Mo₂C/MoC/CNT	CNT film	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	201	233	336 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[66]
Mechanical stability enhancement	CAPist-L1	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	—	1500 h@1000 mA cm^-2 80 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[100]
Mechanical stability enhancement	Ru NPs/TiN	carbon fiber paper	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	—	1000 h@5000 mA cm^-2 80 ℃, 30% KOH	AEMWE	[56]
Mechanical stability enhancement	h-Ni/MoO₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	70.9 ± 4.5	2500 h@1000 mA cm^-2 80 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[52]
Mechanical stability enhancement	porous Co-P	Co foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	243	290	4000 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[221]
Mechanical stability enhancement	3D AEI-CEI-NiFe /Nf	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	—	800 h@10000 mA cm^-2 80 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[222]
Mechanical stability enhancement	P-Pt/NiMoO₄@NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	—	80	120 h@500 mA cm^-2, 60 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	AEMWE	[223]
Mechanical stability enhancement	NiMo/Int/NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	80.2 ± 3.53	3000 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[224]
Mechanical stability enhancement	Int-Ni/MoO₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	73.2 ± 14.2	1000 h@1000 mA cm^-2 60 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[225]
Chemical stability enhancement	Ru₉₈Ir₂-350	carbon paper	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	94	121	1500 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[46]
Chemical stability enhancement	Mn_0.05Ru_0.95O₂	carbon paper	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	269	500 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	half-cell HER	[198]
Chemical stability enhancement	NiCoP/NiCoS_x /NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	222	—	40 h@500 mA cm^-2 40-70 ℃, 30% KOH	half-cell HER	[199]
Chemical stability enhancement	MoO_x/A-Ni₃S₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	145	2500 h@2000 mA cm^-2 40 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[226]
Chemical stability enhancement	UP-RuNi_SAs/C	carbon fiber paper	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	253	250 h@1000 mA cm^-2 RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[227]
Chemical stability enhancement	Os-Ni₄Mo/MoO₂	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	113	150	1100 h@500 mA cm^-2, RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	OWS	[228]
Chemical stability enhancement	Ni_9.5Co_0.5-S-FeO_x	Cu foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	169	230	325 h@1000 mA cm^-2, RT, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH + seawater	OWS	[195]
Chemical stability enhancement	NA-Ru₃Ni	Gas diffusion layer	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	—	168	2000 h@1000 mA cm^-2 60 ℃, 1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	AEMWE	[196]
Chemical stability enhancement	Cu-Co-P/NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	196	—	220 h@500 mA cm^-2 80 ℃, 6.0 mol L^-1 KOH	OWS	[229]
Chemical stability enhancement	Ni₂P-NiMoO_x/NF	Ni foam	1.0 mol L^-1 KOH	297	—	100 h@400 mA cm^-2 65 ℃, 30% KOH	AEMWE	[230]

Engineering electrocatalysts for industrial-current-density alkaline hydrogen evolution: Design principles and future perspectives

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