环保型碳纳米材料在光催化制氢方面的应用

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(21)63994-3

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

化石能源的发现和应用是工业文明快速发展的基础. 然而, 化石燃料的过渡开发和消耗导致能源短缺和环境污染问题日益突出. 因此, 迫切需要采用清洁能源替代化石能源. 其中, 氢气(H₂)因具有热值高、无污染等优点而被认为是最有前途的清洁能源之一. 目前, 应用较多且比较成熟的制氢技术有电催化法、部分氧化法、自热重整法、甲醇重整法、蒸汽重整法和生物法. 但是, 这些技术的能耗和成本都比较高. 光催化制氢技术可实现太阳能的转化和利用, 被认为是解决能源短缺和环境污染问题的有效方法之一, 受到广泛关注. 光催化制氢主要采用贵金属催化剂, 但贵金属稀缺且成本高, 严重限制了其大规模应用. 因此, 迫切需要寻找一种便宜、高效和稳定的光催化制氢催化剂. 碳纳米结构材料(CNMs)具有优异的结构和半导体性能, 包括良好的导电性、较大的比表面积、较好的热稳定性和化学稳定性, 可以有效地参与光催化制氢. 此外, CNMs和光催化剂的结合可以增强反应物的吸附位点和活性中心, 加速电荷分离和传输, 抑制光激发的电子-空穴对的复合. 同时, CNMs可以减少催化剂颗粒的聚集, 改善催化剂颗粒的分布. CNMs还具有光敏性或光热效应, 可以大大提高光催化制氢的效率. 特别是CNMs价格低, 可大幅度降低用于光催化分解制氢催化剂的成本, 使实现工业化应用成为可能, 因而, 大量CNMs用于光催化水分解制氢领域.

本文综述了碳点、富勒烯、纳米管、石墨烯和石墨炔等碳纳米材料在光催化制氢领域的广泛应用, 总结了其在光催化制氢过程中作为光催化剂、助催化剂和光敏剂的应用. 介绍了近年研究人员在光催化制氢中所采取的增强CNMs活性的策略. 最后, 展望了CNMs在光催化制氢方面所面临的挑战和机遇.

关键词: 碳纳米材料, 光催化, 制氢

Abstract:

Currently, the energy crisis is the crucial problem faced by the world, and photocatalytic hydrogen (H₂) production is recognized with a chance to be a standout amongst those guaranteeing results to this issue. For a long time, photocatalytic H₂ production has mainly relied on the noble metal catalysts. However, the limitations of noble metals themselves, such as scarcity and high cost, have severely restricted their large-scale application. Therefore, it is urgent to seek a cheaper, more efficient, and stable catalyst for photocatalytic H₂ production. Fortunately, the emergence of carbon nanostructured materials (CNMs) has brought dawn. Its excellent structure and semiconductor performance can effectively participate in photocatalytic H₂ production. CNMs have developed rapidly since they appeared in the field of photocatalytic water splitting. Therefore, it is necessary to summarize the latest progress of CNMs promptly for further development. This review introduced the CNMs, including carbon dots, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphdiyne, which is a powerful assistant in photocatalytic H₂ production. CNMs can provide abundant adsorption and active sites, charge separation and transport channels, photocatalysts, co-catalysts and photosensitizers. Then, this review has introduced the strategy for enhancing CNMs in photocatalytic H₂ production based on recent research. Finally, the challenge faced by CNMs in photocatalytic H₂ production has prospected.

Key words: Carbon nanostructured materials, Photocatalysis, Hydrogen production

熊胜, 汤榕菂, 龚道新, 邓垚成, 郑蒋夫, 李玲, 周展鹏, 杨丽华, 苏龙. 环保型碳纳米材料在光催化制氢方面的应用[J]. 催化学报, 2022, 43(7): 1719-1748.

Sheng Xiong, Rongdi Tang, Daoxin Gong, Yaocheng Deng, Jiangfu Zheng, Ling Li, Zhanpeng Zhou, Lihua Yang, Long Su. Environmentally-friendly carbon nanomaterials for photocatalytic hydrogen production[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2022, 43(7): 1719-1748.

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Species	Photocatalyst		Pattern of CNMs		Light source		Reaction medium			Efficiency (mmol·h^-1·g^-1)	Ref.
Fullerene	C₆₀-Cr_2-_xFe_xO₃		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp with an UV cut-off filter (λ > 420 nm)		5 mg sample in 78 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)			0.2205	[174]
	C₆₀/Fe₂O₃		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp with an UV cut-off filter (λ > 420 nm)		5 mg sample in 78 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)			0.3218	[175]
	C₆₀/CdS		Photosensitizer		300 W xenon lamp with a 420 nm cutoff filter		25 mg photocatalyst in 50 mL aqueous solution containing 10 vol% lactic acid and 1 wt% Pt			1.73	[176]
	C₆₀/TiO₂		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp without filters		30 mg sample in 80 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)			0.5792	[177]
	C₆₀/MoS₂		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe-lamp		1 mg sample in 20 mL aqueous solution containing 3.5 mg Eosin Y (EY) and 1 mL TEOA			6.89	[178]
	C₆₀/graphene/g-C₃N₄		Photosensitizer		5 W LED irradiation (λ > 420 nm)		100 mg sample in 50 mL aqueous solution containing 1 wt‰ Pt and 10 vol% TEOA			0.0946	[179]
Carbon dots	TiO₂/CQD/Pt		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp equipped with cutoff filter (λ ≥ 420 nm)		10 mg photocatalysts and 20 mL TEOA solution (0.33 mol/L)			1.458	[180]
	CDs/ BiVO₄QDs		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp		80 mg sample in 100 mL ultrapure water without any sacrificial reagents			0.0115	[181]
	CDs/CdS		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp with 420 nm UV cutoff filter		50 mg sample in 20 mL ultrapure water without any sacrificial reagents			0.051	[182]
	CuCQDs		Photocatalyst		300 W Xe lamp with 420 nm UV cutoff filter		2 mL 0.01 g·L^-1 CQDs in 1 mL 2 mmol·L^-1 copper acetate solution, 10 mL of lactic acid, 56 mL DI water and 1 g PEG			64	[183]
	Co@C		Supporting		300 W Xe lamp with 420 nm UV-cut-off filter		20 mg catalyst dispersed in 100 mL triethanolamine (10 vol%)			0.286	[184]
	CdS/Co@NC		Co-catalyst		420 nm LED lamp with the intensity of 100 mW cm^-2		2 mg sample and 10 mL 10 vol% lactic acid solution			21.8	[185]
	NCDs		Photocatalyst		450 W Xe lamp		5 mg CDs in 3 mL methanol (6 vol%)			0.0187	[186]
	NCDs/TiO₂		Photosensitizer		500 W metal halide lamp		50 mg sample in 25 mL methanol (25 vol%)			0.196	[187]
Carbon nanotubes	Ni-TiO₂/CNT		Supporting		Liquid phase plasma		500 mg sample and 200 mL 10 vol% ethanol solution			10	[188]
	WO₃-CNT@ MoSe₂		Supporting		Visible-light irradiation using cutoff filter (λ ≥ 400 nm)		25 mg photocatalyst in 100 mL solution containing 0.1 mol/L Na₂S and 0.04 mol/L Na₂SO₃			0.163	[189]
	CNT-TiO₂		Supporting		Visible light (20 W Sisca white LED)		5 mg sample in 20 mL DI water			0.0694	[190]
Species		Photocatalyst		Pattern of CNMs		Light source		Reaction medium	Efficiency (mmol·h^-1·g^-1)			Ref.
		Cu/CNT-TiO₂		Supporting		Sunlight on sunny days between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m.		5 mg photocatalyst in 50 mL glycerol aqueous solution (5 vol%)	54.4			[191]
		Ni/γ-Al₂O₃/ CNT-TiO₂		Supporting		Solar light irradiation		10 mg materials in 50 mL glycerol solution (5 vol%)	3.4			[192]
		1%CNT-Pt/TiO₂		Supporting		UV-LED system (384 nm)		0.5 g·L^-1 catalyst	1.046			[193]
		Fe@CNTs/ Pd@TiO₂		Supporting		UV 125 W medium pressure Hg lamp		10 mg materials in 60 mL ethanol solution	1.638			[136]
		CN/SWCNT		Supporting		150 W Xe lamp		60 mg samples with 1.5 wt% Pt in 80 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)	~50			[194]
		TiO₂-Ni(OH)₂/ CNT/CdS		Supporting		300 W Xenon arc light source after filtering the UV light		50 mg photocatalyst in 20 mL lactic acid and 210 mL water	12			[195]
		TiO_2-_x/CNT		Supporting		300 W Xeon-lamp with a 420 nm cut-off filter		50 mg photocatalysts in 80 mL methanol (25 vol%)	0.2429			[196]
		AuNPs@NiS @CNT		Supporting		300 W Arc-Xe lamp		20 mg photocatalysts in 100 mL TEA solution (15 vol%)	18.3			[197]
		Cu₃P-CNT		Supporting and co-catalyst		350 W Xe lamp		50 mg sample in 80 mL TEOA solution (15 vol%)	17.22			[198]
		CNT-GR-TiO₂		Supporting		Oriel Xe-350 W lamp		5 mg photocatalyst in 50 mL methanol (10 vol%)	29			[199]
Graphene		Ce-Sulfonated GO		Supporting		UV or visible light lamp		100 mg photocatalyst in 100 mL NaCl solution (17.5 vol%) and 2.0 g Na₂S and 5.0 g Na₂SO₃	2.1 (UV light) 0.7 (visible light)			[200]
		NiTiO₃/rGO		Supporting and co-catalyst		100 W linear halogen lamp		10 mg photocatalyst in 50 mL methanol (5 vol%)	8.383			[201]
		SrTiO₃/PAN/ x-graphene		Supporting and co-catalyst		120 W ultraviolet lamp (λ = 254 nm)		1000 mg catalyst in 20 ml methanol solution (15 vol%)	0.34			[202]
		ZnO/rGO/C		Supporting		300 W Xe lamp		50 mg sample in 120 mL methanol (25 vol%)	0.0146			[48]
		MoS₂-graphene/ ZnInS₂		Supporting		300 W Xenon lamp with cut-off filter (λ > 420 nm)		50 mg sample in 50 mL aqueous solution containing 0.25 mol/L Na₂S and Na₂SO₃	4.167			[203]
		CdS/MoS₂/ graphene		Supporting		300 W Xenon lamp with a 400 nm cut-off filter		30 mg catalyst in 50 mL lactic acid solution (10 vol%)	1.913			[204]
		Nb₆/PPy-RGO		Supporting		300 W Xe lamp		50 mg catalyst in 40 mL CH₃OH solution (25 vol%)	0.2076			[205]
		MoS₃/Au@AgNP/rGO		Supporting		300 W Xe lamp		10 mg catalysts, 26 mg EY, and 100 mL TEOA solution (15 vol%)	10.6			[206]
		graphene-TETA/ CuO		Supporting		300 W Xenon lamp equipped with an optical filter (λ > 420 nm)		0.4 g·L^-1 catalyst with 12.5 mg Eosin Y, 9 mL TEA and 26 mL water	5.85			[207]
		ZnO-ZnS/ graphene		Supporting		300W high-pressure mercury lamp		50 mg catalyst in 100 mL glycerol solution (40 vol%)	1.07			[208]
		Ag-Bi₂WO₆- graphene		Supporting		300 W high-pressure mercury lamp		50 mg photocatalyst in 100 mL NaCl solution (3 mol/L) and 0.1 mol/L Na₂S and 0.04 mol/L Na₂SO₃	~0.25			[209]
		CuO/rGO		Supporting		300 W Xenon light		40 mg catalyst with 1 wt% Pt in 80 mL methanol solution	19.2			[210]
		WO₃/TiO₂/rGO		Supporting		350 W Xe arc lamp		50 mg catalyst in 80 mL methanol solution (20 vol%)	~0.25			[211]
		CdS/WS₂/ graphene		Supporting		500 W Xeno arc lamp through a UV-cutoff filter (λ > 420 nm)		8 mg photocatalyst in 8 mL aqueous solution containing 0.35 M mol/L Na₂S and 0.25 mol/L Na₂SO₃	1.842			[212]
Graphdiyne		GDY-CuI		Photocatalyst		5 W light emitting diode lamp		10 mg catalyst in 30 mL TEOA solution (15 vol%)	9.319			[213]
		NiTiO₃-CuI/GD		Supporting and photocatalyst		5 W simulated sunlight		10 mg catalyst in 30 mL TEOA solution (15 vol%)	0.509			[214]
		TiO₂/γ-GY		Supporting		300 W Xe arc lamp		20 mg catalyst in 100 mL methanol solution (10 vol%)	0.97			[119]
		TiO₂/MoSe₂/ γ-graphyne		Supporting		300 W Xe arc lamp with an optical filter		20 mg catalyst in 100 mL methanol solution (10 vol%)	0.8			[215]
		Mn_0.2Cd_0.8S/ Graphdiyne		Supporting and photocatalyst		300 W Xenon lamp with 420 nm filter		—	9.904			[216]
		H-GDY/TiO₂		Supporting and photocatalyst		Oriel 300 W Xenon lamp		10 mg catalyst in 20 mL methanol solution (25 vol%)	6.2 (UV light) 0.67 (visible light)			[217]
		GDY/g-C₃N₄		Supporting and photocatalyst		Xe lamp (350 W) was used as the light source, and a filter (λ > 420 nm)		50 mg catalysts in 80 mL of TEOA solution (15 vol%)	0.792			[218]

Species	Photocatalyst		Pattern of CNMs		Light source		Reaction medium			Efficiency (mmol·h^-1·g^-1)	Ref.
Fullerene	C₆₀-Cr_2-_xFe_xO₃		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp with an UV cut-off filter (λ > 420 nm)		5 mg sample in 78 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)			0.2205	[174]
	C₆₀/Fe₂O₃		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp with an UV cut-off filter (λ > 420 nm)		5 mg sample in 78 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)			0.3218	[175]
	C₆₀/CdS		Photosensitizer		300 W xenon lamp with a 420 nm cutoff filter		25 mg photocatalyst in 50 mL aqueous solution containing 10 vol% lactic acid and 1 wt% Pt			1.73	[176]
	C₆₀/TiO₂		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp without filters		30 mg sample in 80 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)			0.5792	[177]
	C₆₀/MoS₂		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe-lamp		1 mg sample in 20 mL aqueous solution containing 3.5 mg Eosin Y (EY) and 1 mL TEOA			6.89	[178]
	C₆₀/graphene/g-C₃N₄		Photosensitizer		5 W LED irradiation (λ > 420 nm)		100 mg sample in 50 mL aqueous solution containing 1 wt‰ Pt and 10 vol% TEOA			0.0946	[179]
Carbon dots	TiO₂/CQD/Pt		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp equipped with cutoff filter (λ ≥ 420 nm)		10 mg photocatalysts and 20 mL TEOA solution (0.33 mol/L)			1.458	[180]
	CDs/ BiVO₄QDs		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp		80 mg sample in 100 mL ultrapure water without any sacrificial reagents			0.0115	[181]
	CDs/CdS		Photosensitizer		300 W Xe lamp with 420 nm UV cutoff filter		50 mg sample in 20 mL ultrapure water without any sacrificial reagents			0.051	[182]
	CuCQDs		Photocatalyst		300 W Xe lamp with 420 nm UV cutoff filter		2 mL 0.01 g·L^-1 CQDs in 1 mL 2 mmol·L^-1 copper acetate solution, 10 mL of lactic acid, 56 mL DI water and 1 g PEG			64	[183]
	Co@C		Supporting		300 W Xe lamp with 420 nm UV-cut-off filter		20 mg catalyst dispersed in 100 mL triethanolamine (10 vol%)			0.286	[184]
	CdS/Co@NC		Co-catalyst		420 nm LED lamp with the intensity of 100 mW cm^-2		2 mg sample and 10 mL 10 vol% lactic acid solution			21.8	[185]
	NCDs		Photocatalyst		450 W Xe lamp		5 mg CDs in 3 mL methanol (6 vol%)			0.0187	[186]
	NCDs/TiO₂		Photosensitizer		500 W metal halide lamp		50 mg sample in 25 mL methanol (25 vol%)			0.196	[187]
Carbon nanotubes	Ni-TiO₂/CNT		Supporting		Liquid phase plasma		500 mg sample and 200 mL 10 vol% ethanol solution			10	[188]
	WO₃-CNT@ MoSe₂		Supporting		Visible-light irradiation using cutoff filter (λ ≥ 400 nm)		25 mg photocatalyst in 100 mL solution containing 0.1 mol/L Na₂S and 0.04 mol/L Na₂SO₃			0.163	[189]
	CNT-TiO₂		Supporting		Visible light (20 W Sisca white LED)		5 mg sample in 20 mL DI water			0.0694	[190]
Species		Photocatalyst		Pattern of CNMs		Light source		Reaction medium	Efficiency (mmol·h^-1·g^-1)			Ref.
		Cu/CNT-TiO₂		Supporting		Sunlight on sunny days between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m.		5 mg photocatalyst in 50 mL glycerol aqueous solution (5 vol%)	54.4			[191]
		Ni/γ-Al₂O₃/ CNT-TiO₂		Supporting		Solar light irradiation		10 mg materials in 50 mL glycerol solution (5 vol%)	3.4			[192]
		1%CNT-Pt/TiO₂		Supporting		UV-LED system (384 nm)		0.5 g·L^-1 catalyst	1.046			[193]
		Fe@CNTs/ Pd@TiO₂		Supporting		UV 125 W medium pressure Hg lamp		10 mg materials in 60 mL ethanol solution	1.638			[136]
		CN/SWCNT		Supporting		150 W Xe lamp		60 mg samples with 1.5 wt% Pt in 80 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)	~50			[194]
		TiO₂-Ni(OH)₂/ CNT/CdS		Supporting		300 W Xenon arc light source after filtering the UV light		50 mg photocatalyst in 20 mL lactic acid and 210 mL water	12			[195]
		TiO_2-_x/CNT		Supporting		300 W Xeon-lamp with a 420 nm cut-off filter		50 mg photocatalysts in 80 mL methanol (25 vol%)	0.2429			[196]
		AuNPs@NiS @CNT		Supporting		300 W Arc-Xe lamp		20 mg photocatalysts in 100 mL TEA solution (15 vol%)	18.3			[197]
		Cu₃P-CNT		Supporting and co-catalyst		350 W Xe lamp		50 mg sample in 80 mL TEOA solution (15 vol%)	17.22			[198]
		CNT-GR-TiO₂		Supporting		Oriel Xe-350 W lamp		5 mg photocatalyst in 50 mL methanol (10 vol%)	29			[199]
Graphene		Ce-Sulfonated GO		Supporting		UV or visible light lamp		100 mg photocatalyst in 100 mL NaCl solution (17.5 vol%) and 2.0 g Na₂S and 5.0 g Na₂SO₃	2.1 (UV light) 0.7 (visible light)			[200]
		NiTiO₃/rGO		Supporting and co-catalyst		100 W linear halogen lamp		10 mg photocatalyst in 50 mL methanol (5 vol%)	8.383			[201]
		SrTiO₃/PAN/ x-graphene		Supporting and co-catalyst		120 W ultraviolet lamp (λ = 254 nm)		1000 mg catalyst in 20 ml methanol solution (15 vol%)	0.34			[202]
		ZnO/rGO/C		Supporting		300 W Xe lamp		50 mg sample in 120 mL methanol (25 vol%)	0.0146			[48]
		MoS₂-graphene/ ZnInS₂		Supporting		300 W Xenon lamp with cut-off filter (λ > 420 nm)		50 mg sample in 50 mL aqueous solution containing 0.25 mol/L Na₂S and Na₂SO₃	4.167			[203]
		CdS/MoS₂/ graphene		Supporting		300 W Xenon lamp with a 400 nm cut-off filter		30 mg catalyst in 50 mL lactic acid solution (10 vol%)	1.913			[204]
		Nb₆/PPy-RGO		Supporting		300 W Xe lamp		50 mg catalyst in 40 mL CH₃OH solution (25 vol%)	0.2076			[205]
		MoS₃/Au@AgNP/rGO		Supporting		300 W Xe lamp		10 mg catalysts, 26 mg EY, and 100 mL TEOA solution (15 vol%)	10.6			[206]
		graphene-TETA/ CuO		Supporting		300 W Xenon lamp equipped with an optical filter (λ > 420 nm)		0.4 g·L^-1 catalyst with 12.5 mg Eosin Y, 9 mL TEA and 26 mL water	5.85			[207]
		ZnO-ZnS/ graphene		Supporting		300W high-pressure mercury lamp		50 mg catalyst in 100 mL glycerol solution (40 vol%)	1.07			[208]
		Ag-Bi₂WO₆- graphene		Supporting		300 W high-pressure mercury lamp		50 mg photocatalyst in 100 mL NaCl solution (3 mol/L) and 0.1 mol/L Na₂S and 0.04 mol/L Na₂SO₃	~0.25			[209]
		CuO/rGO		Supporting		300 W Xenon light		40 mg catalyst with 1 wt% Pt in 80 mL methanol solution	19.2			[210]
		WO₃/TiO₂/rGO		Supporting		350 W Xe arc lamp		50 mg catalyst in 80 mL methanol solution (20 vol%)	~0.25			[211]
		CdS/WS₂/ graphene		Supporting		500 W Xeno arc lamp through a UV-cutoff filter (λ > 420 nm)		8 mg photocatalyst in 8 mL aqueous solution containing 0.35 M mol/L Na₂S and 0.25 mol/L Na₂SO₃	1.842			[212]
Graphdiyne		GDY-CuI		Photocatalyst		5 W light emitting diode lamp		10 mg catalyst in 30 mL TEOA solution (15 vol%)	9.319			[213]
		NiTiO₃-CuI/GD		Supporting and photocatalyst		5 W simulated sunlight		10 mg catalyst in 30 mL TEOA solution (15 vol%)	0.509			[214]
		TiO₂/γ-GY		Supporting		300 W Xe arc lamp		20 mg catalyst in 100 mL methanol solution (10 vol%)	0.97			[119]
		TiO₂/MoSe₂/ γ-graphyne		Supporting		300 W Xe arc lamp with an optical filter		20 mg catalyst in 100 mL methanol solution (10 vol%)	0.8			[215]
		Mn_0.2Cd_0.8S/ Graphdiyne		Supporting and photocatalyst		300 W Xenon lamp with 420 nm filter		—	9.904			[216]
		H-GDY/TiO₂		Supporting and photocatalyst		Oriel 300 W Xenon lamp		10 mg catalyst in 20 mL methanol solution (25 vol%)	6.2 (UV light) 0.67 (visible light)			[217]
		GDY/g-C₃N₄		Supporting and photocatalyst		Xe lamp (350 W) was used as the light source, and a filter (λ > 420 nm)		50 mg catalysts in 80 mL of TEOA solution (15 vol%)	0.792			[218]

Strategies	Photocatalyst	Light source	Reaction medium	Efficiency (mmol·h^-1·g^-1)	Ref.
Crucial features tailor	TiO₂/C	8 W UV lamp with spectral emission in the range 400-650 nm	5 g/L sample in 80 mL glycerol aqueous solution (5 wt%)	0.424	[308]
	CdS/graphene QDs	300-W Xe lamp with an optical cut-off filter ((λ > 420 nm)	40 mg photocatalyst in 100 mL solution containing 0.5 mol/L Na₂S and 0.5 mol/L Na₂SO₃	2.385	[309]
	Cu/rGO	300 W Xenon lamp	58 mL of DI water, 10 mL of lactic acid and 1 mL of 2 mmol·L^-1 copper acetate solutions	59	[310]
	SiC/graphitic C	300 W Xe lamp	25 mg sample in 50 mL methanol solution (20 vol%)	0.1802	[311]
	r-CDs/Pt	300 W Xe lamp	30 mg sample in 100 mL solution that containing 0.7 mol/L Na₂S and 0.5 mol/L Na₂SO₃	0.681	[312]
	Ammonia-S,N-GOD	300 W xenon lamp	200 mg sample and 3 wt% Pt and 16 mg H₂PtCl₆·6H₂O in 250 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)	0.1	[233]
	Cd_0.5Zn_0.5S-CNTs(Cu)	300 W Xe arc lamp	20 mg sample in 0.01 mL resin solution and 1 mL ethanol	2.995	[313]
	NiO-TiO_2-_x/C	300 W Xeon-lamp	20 mg catalyst in 100 mL methanol solution (20 vol%)	1.55	[314]
	TiO₂/Cu_xO/C	500 W Xe/Hg lamp	10 mg photocatalyst in 7.5 mL CH₃OH and 17.5 mL water	3.298	[315]
Functional group modification	f-CNT/Pt	UV lamp (365 nm, 4400 mW/cm²)	10 mg catalyst in 100 mL sodium sulfite solution (20 mg/L)	13.85	[316]
	f-CNT/TiO₂	Solar light	5 mg of catalyst in 50 mL of a 5 vol% glycerol aqueous solution	7.476	[317]
	AgBr/bCNTs/TiO₂	35 W Xe lamp	100 mg catalyst in 20 vol% 100 mL methanol solution	0.477	[318]
	Co(dcbpy)₂(NCS)₂/ f-CQDs/CN	300W Xenon lamp under visible light region (λ > 420 nm).	50 mg catalyst in 100 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)	0.296	[319]
	ZnO/LFC	500 W Xe lamp	20 mg sample in 50 mL SMT aqueous solution (20 mg/L)	0.029	[320]
Doping of hetero elements	SNGODs	4 W mercury lamp	0.4 g sample in 250 mL of 0.35 mol·L^-1 sugar solution	0.221	[321]
	N-TiO₂/NC	300 W Xe arc lamp with UV cutoff filter	100 mg catalyst in 100 mL methanol solution (20 vol%)	0.103	[322]
	N-C/Pt@TiO₂	300 W Xe lamp	35 mg sample in 100 mL of 20 vol% methanol aqueous solution	9.086	[323]
	CoO_x@N, S-C/CdS	300 W Xe lamp	25 mg catalyst in 50 mL DI water and 1 lactic acid	0.04	[324]
	CdS/NC@Mo₂N	300 W Xe lamp	5 mg sample in 50 mL solution that containing 0.25 mol/L Na₂S and 0.35 mol/L Na₂SO₃	7.294	[325]
	N,C-TiO₂/C	500 W Xe/Hg lamp	25 mg photocatalyst in 7.5 mL CH₃OH and 17.5 mL water	0.426	[326]
Heterostructure	Pt/TiO₂/rGO	8 W Hg lamp	5 mg sample in 100 mL aqueous solution of glycerol (5 vol%)	28.5	[327]
	rGO(3%)-CoO_x/BMO	200 W Xe lamp	50 mg sample in 100 mL distilled water	0.74	[328]
	Ag/CQDs/g-C₃N₄	300 W Xenon lamp with cut-off filter (550 nm) or band-pass filters	5 mg catalyst in 70 mL water solution containing 10 mL TEOA	0.627	[329]
	CdS QDs/P-CNT	300 W Xe-lamp with a 420 nm cutoff filter	10 mg samples in 100 mL aqueous solution having 0.35 mol/L Na₂S and Na₂SO₃	1.579	[277]
	NiO/CDs/BiVO₄	300 W Xe-lamp	10 mg catalyst in 25 mL ultrapure water	0.121	[330]
	Porous-rGO/CdS-DETA	300 W Xe lamp equipped with a 400 nm-cut-off filter	50 mg catalyst in 100 mL mixed solution containing 0.35 mol/L Na₂S and 0.25 mol/L Na₂SO₃	10.5	[331]
	CD/CdS@MIL-101	300 W Xe lamp with a 420 nm cut-off filter	30 mg photocatalyst in 50 mL of lactic acid solution (10 vol%)	0.488	[309]
	rGO-Ag₃PO₄	300 W Xenon lamp with 400 nm cutoff filter	50 mg sample in 50 mL of 10 vol% methanol solution	3.69	[332]
	TiO₂-NiCoS-C	300 W xenon arc lamp	20 mg sample in 50 mL of 20 vol% methanol solution	1.29	[333]
	C-TiO₂/WO₃	300 W Xe arc lamp	20 mg sample in 70 mL of 36 vol% methanol solution	~1.5	[334]
	rGO-Cu₂O/Bi₂WO₆	300 W xenon lamp with a 420 nm cut-off filter	20 mg sample in 100 ml distilled water	0.002	[335]
	Cu₂O/rGO/BiVO₄	300 W Xenon lamp	50 mg sample in 90 ml distilled water	0.006	[336]
	SrTiO₃@TiO₂/C	300 W UV Xe lamp	100 mg sample and 2 mL H₂PtCl₆·6H₂O solution (1 g·L^-1) in 80 mL methanol solution (25 vol%)	2.52 (UV light)	[337]

Strategies	Photocatalyst	Light source	Reaction medium	Efficiency (mmol·h^-1·g^-1)	Ref.
Crucial features tailor	TiO₂/C	8 W UV lamp with spectral emission in the range 400-650 nm	5 g/L sample in 80 mL glycerol aqueous solution (5 wt%)	0.424	[308]
	CdS/graphene QDs	300-W Xe lamp with an optical cut-off filter ((λ > 420 nm)	40 mg photocatalyst in 100 mL solution containing 0.5 mol/L Na₂S and 0.5 mol/L Na₂SO₃	2.385	[309]
	Cu/rGO	300 W Xenon lamp	58 mL of DI water, 10 mL of lactic acid and 1 mL of 2 mmol·L^-1 copper acetate solutions	59	[310]
	SiC/graphitic C	300 W Xe lamp	25 mg sample in 50 mL methanol solution (20 vol%)	0.1802	[311]
	r-CDs/Pt	300 W Xe lamp	30 mg sample in 100 mL solution that containing 0.7 mol/L Na₂S and 0.5 mol/L Na₂SO₃	0.681	[312]
	Ammonia-S,N-GOD	300 W xenon lamp	200 mg sample and 3 wt% Pt and 16 mg H₂PtCl₆·6H₂O in 250 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)	0.1	[233]
	Cd_0.5Zn_0.5S-CNTs(Cu)	300 W Xe arc lamp	20 mg sample in 0.01 mL resin solution and 1 mL ethanol	2.995	[313]
	NiO-TiO_2-_x/C	300 W Xeon-lamp	20 mg catalyst in 100 mL methanol solution (20 vol%)	1.55	[314]
	TiO₂/Cu_xO/C	500 W Xe/Hg lamp	10 mg photocatalyst in 7.5 mL CH₃OH and 17.5 mL water	3.298	[315]
Functional group modification	f-CNT/Pt	UV lamp (365 nm, 4400 mW/cm²)	10 mg catalyst in 100 mL sodium sulfite solution (20 mg/L)	13.85	[316]
	f-CNT/TiO₂	Solar light	5 mg of catalyst in 50 mL of a 5 vol% glycerol aqueous solution	7.476	[317]
	AgBr/bCNTs/TiO₂	35 W Xe lamp	100 mg catalyst in 20 vol% 100 mL methanol solution	0.477	[318]
	Co(dcbpy)₂(NCS)₂/ f-CQDs/CN	300W Xenon lamp under visible light region (λ > 420 nm).	50 mg catalyst in 100 mL TEOA solution (10 vol%)	0.296	[319]
	ZnO/LFC	500 W Xe lamp	20 mg sample in 50 mL SMT aqueous solution (20 mg/L)	0.029	[320]
Doping of hetero elements	SNGODs	4 W mercury lamp	0.4 g sample in 250 mL of 0.35 mol·L^-1 sugar solution	0.221	[321]
	N-TiO₂/NC	300 W Xe arc lamp with UV cutoff filter	100 mg catalyst in 100 mL methanol solution (20 vol%)	0.103	[322]
	N-C/Pt@TiO₂	300 W Xe lamp	35 mg sample in 100 mL of 20 vol% methanol aqueous solution	9.086	[323]
	CoO_x@N, S-C/CdS	300 W Xe lamp	25 mg catalyst in 50 mL DI water and 1 lactic acid	0.04	[324]
	CdS/NC@Mo₂N	300 W Xe lamp	5 mg sample in 50 mL solution that containing 0.25 mol/L Na₂S and 0.35 mol/L Na₂SO₃	7.294	[325]
	N,C-TiO₂/C	500 W Xe/Hg lamp	25 mg photocatalyst in 7.5 mL CH₃OH and 17.5 mL water	0.426	[326]
Heterostructure	Pt/TiO₂/rGO	8 W Hg lamp	5 mg sample in 100 mL aqueous solution of glycerol (5 vol%)	28.5	[327]
	rGO(3%)-CoO_x/BMO	200 W Xe lamp	50 mg sample in 100 mL distilled water	0.74	[328]
	Ag/CQDs/g-C₃N₄	300 W Xenon lamp with cut-off filter (550 nm) or band-pass filters	5 mg catalyst in 70 mL water solution containing 10 mL TEOA	0.627	[329]
	CdS QDs/P-CNT	300 W Xe-lamp with a 420 nm cutoff filter	10 mg samples in 100 mL aqueous solution having 0.35 mol/L Na₂S and Na₂SO₃	1.579	[277]
	NiO/CDs/BiVO₄	300 W Xe-lamp	10 mg catalyst in 25 mL ultrapure water	0.121	[330]
	Porous-rGO/CdS-DETA	300 W Xe lamp equipped with a 400 nm-cut-off filter	50 mg catalyst in 100 mL mixed solution containing 0.35 mol/L Na₂S and 0.25 mol/L Na₂SO₃	10.5	[331]
	CD/CdS@MIL-101	300 W Xe lamp with a 420 nm cut-off filter	30 mg photocatalyst in 50 mL of lactic acid solution (10 vol%)	0.488	[309]
	rGO-Ag₃PO₄	300 W Xenon lamp with 400 nm cutoff filter	50 mg sample in 50 mL of 10 vol% methanol solution	3.69	[332]
	TiO₂-NiCoS-C	300 W xenon arc lamp	20 mg sample in 50 mL of 20 vol% methanol solution	1.29	[333]
	C-TiO₂/WO₃	300 W Xe arc lamp	20 mg sample in 70 mL of 36 vol% methanol solution	~1.5	[334]
	rGO-Cu₂O/Bi₂WO₆	300 W xenon lamp with a 420 nm cut-off filter	20 mg sample in 100 ml distilled water	0.002	[335]
	Cu₂O/rGO/BiVO₄	300 W Xenon lamp	50 mg sample in 90 ml distilled water	0.006	[336]
	SrTiO₃@TiO₂/C	300 W UV Xe lamp	100 mg sample and 2 mL H₂PtCl₆·6H₂O solution (1 g·L^-1) in 80 mL methanol solution (25 vol%)	2.52 (UV light)	[337]