原位电化学扫描探针显微镜技术在电催化领域的应用进展

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(23)64396-7

催化学报 ›› 2023, Vol. 47: 93-120.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(23)64396-7

原位电化学扫描探针显微镜技术在电催化领域的应用进展

刘丹卿^a, 张丙兴^a, 赵国强^a, 陈建^b, 潘洪革^a^,^b, 孙文平^a^,^c,*()

^a浙江大学材料科学与工程学院, 浙江杭州310058
^b西安工业大学新能源科学与技术研究院, 陕西西安710021
^c浙江大学能源清洁利用国家重点实验室, 浙江杭州310027

收稿日期:2022-11-26 接受日期:2023-01-10 出版日期:2023-04-18 发布日期:2023-03-20
通讯作者: *电子信箱: wenpingsun@zju.edu.cn (孙文平).
基金资助:
国家重大研究和发展项目(2202YFB4002503);浙江省自然科学基金(LZ22B030006);国家自然科学基金(52171224);中国博士后委员会办公室(YJ20200165)

Advanced in-situ electrochemical scanning probe microscopies in electrocatalysis

Dan-Qing Liu^a, Bingxing Zhang^a, Guoqiang Zhao^a, Jian Chen^b, Hongge Pan^a^,^b, Wenping Sun^a^,^c,*()

^aSchool of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
^bInstitute of Science and Technology for New Energy, Xi'an Technological University, Xi'an 710021, Shaanxi, China
^cState Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, Zhejiang, China

Received:2022-11-26 Accepted:2023-01-10 Online:2023-04-18 Published:2023-03-20
Contact: *E-mail: wenpingsun@zju.edu.cn (W. Sun).
About author:Wenping Sun is a professor at School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University. He received his B.S. degree in 2008 and Ph.D. degree in 2013 in Materials Science from the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC). His research expertise includes electrocatalysis, fuel cells, and batteries, especially the design of novel materials and structures, and fundamental understandings of related electrochemical processes.
Supported by:
National Key Research and Development Program of China(2202YFB4002503);Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province(LZ22B030006);National Natural Science Foundation of China(52171224);Office of China Postdoc Council(YJ20200165)

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

在电化学界面, 电催化过程通常包括电子转移、吸附和脱附、静电相互作用、溶剂化及去溶剂化等多步过程, 深入理解电催化反应机理极具挑战性. 对纳米结构电化学界面(电极)处电催化过程的深入理解十分有助于阐明电催化反应机理和设计高性能电催化剂材料. 电催化活性通常与电催化剂表面局域化的活性位点密切有关. 在反应条件下, 电催化反应过程的研究极大依赖于高分辨表征技术. 经典的宏观电化学表征方法仅可以提供不同界面位点的平均信息, 很难分辨一些特殊结构位点(如缺陷、晶界、边缘位点)的相关重要电化学信息. 原位电化学扫描探针显微镜技术, 包括电化学扫描隧道显微镜(EC-STM)、电化学原子力显微镜(EC-AFM)、扫描电化学显微镜(SECM)及扫描电化学池显微镜(SECCM), 能够在纳米及原子尺度研究电催化反应过程, 弥补了宏观表征方法的不足, 为探究构效关系和解析电催化反应机理提供了机遇.

本文介绍了各种扫描显微技术的基本原理、特点及优劣势, 并且概述了各项技术在电催化领域研究的重大进展. EC-STM和EC-AFM能够原位表征电催化过程中的纳米尺度表面结构演变及吸附/脱附过程, 但无法直接测量局部电化学活性(法拉第电流). 通过SECM和SECCM可以检测微区电化学信号, 并获得电化学通量和电化学反应动力学信息, 可作为EC-STM和EC-AFM的补充技术. 结合二者的优势, 进一步介绍了双探针结合技术(SECM-AFM, SECM-STM, SECM-SICM及SECM-SECCM)的原理和关键电催化应用. 随后, 从揭示构效关系、结构演变/稳定性、反应物或中间物的吸附、反应路径和选择性等角度, 总结了这些原位电化学扫描探针显微镜技术在电催化领域(析氢反应、氢氧化反应、析氧反应、氧还原反应及CO₂还原反应)的最新研究进展. 最后, 对原位电化学扫描探针显微镜技术在电催化领域研究的挑战及未来发展进行了展望.

关键词: 电化学扫描探针显微镜, 电催化, 反应机理, 构效关系, 界面

Abstract:

Electrocatalysis is critical in improving the energy conversion efficiency, decreasing carbon emissions, and promoting the development of the green energy industry. A deep understanding of the electrocatalytic processes at nanostructured electrochemical interfaces (electrodes) is required to elucidate the electrocatalytic mechanism and facilitate the rational design of electrocatalysts. Electrocatalytic surfaces, which are structurally and compositionally heterogeneous, are usually analyzed using classical macroscopic electrochemical methods that lack the high spatial resolution and temporal sensitivity required for localized electrochemical measurements. In this regard, advances in electrochemical scanning probe microscopy, including electrochemical scanning tunneling, electrochemical atomic force, scanning electrochemical, and scanning electrochemical cell microscopies, offer significant opportunities to study electrocatalytic phenomena at nanometer and ultimately atomic scales during the reaction process. In this review, we first introduce the basic principles, features, and advantages and disadvantages of each technique of these scanning probe microscopies and outline the key advancements of each technique, particularly in investigating electrocatalysis. Subsequently, hybrid techniques of probe microscopy with synergistic effects are introduced. Then, we summarize the recent progress in the application of in-situ characterization methods in electrocatalysis, including hydrogen evolution/oxidation, oxygen evolution, and CO₂ reduction reactions, focusing on the structure-activity correlation, structure evolution/stability, adsorption of the reactants or intermediates, preferred reaction pathways, and selectivity. Finally, the challenges and future developments of in-situ scanning probe microscopy in electrocatalysis are discussed.

Key words: Electrochemical scanning probe, microscopies, Electrocatalysis, Reaction mechanism, Structure-activity relationship, Interface

刘丹卿, 张丙兴, 赵国强, 陈建, 潘洪革, 孙文平. 原位电化学扫描探针显微镜技术在电催化领域的应用进展[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 47: 93-120.

Dan-Qing Liu, Bingxing Zhang, Guoqiang Zhao, Jian Chen, Hongge Pan, Wenping Sun. Advanced in-situ electrochemical scanning probe microscopies in electrocatalysis[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2023, 47: 93-120.

×
扫码分享

导出引用管理器 EndNote|Ris|BibTeX

链接本文: https://www.cjcatal.com/CN/10.1016/S1872-2067(23)64396-7

https://www.cjcatal.com/CN/Y2023/V47/I4/93

图/表 14

Fig. 1. Advanced in-situ/operando electrochemical scanning probe microscopies applied in electrocatalysis.

Table 1 Comparison of in-situ EC-SPMs for electrocatalysis.

Name	Detected signal	Advantages	Disadvantages	Scope of applications	Ref.
EC-STM	tunneling current, surface current	atomic resolution	disruptive faradic current at the tip; tip potential region limited to electrolyte stability window or the stability of the tip material	nanoscale characterization of electrocatalytic processes associated with reactants adsorption/desorption and surface transformation under electrochemical reactions	[48, 49, 59,65, 69, 70]
EC-AFM	physical force, surface current	a wide range of materials including semiconductor and soft electrode materials	lower lateral resolution (typically 1‒20 nm) compared with EC-STM	morphological and mechanical changes in the interface between electrolyte and electrode with nanoscale resolution	[91, 94-97]
SECM	Faradic current	electrochemical images at the nanoscale	electrochemical activity and topography are not easily separated, diffusional broadening effect	extracting kinetics information quantitatively, resolving electrochemical activity over nanoscale systems	[98, 104, 108]
SECCM	ion current, surface current	the electrochemical properties of a surface are probed directly locally with integrated positional feedback, high mass transfer rates	resolution is limited by tip size	combined with other structural characterizing techniques, enabling high resolution correlative structure-activity investigations	[13, 41, 122, 128, 129]
SECM-AFM	physical force, faradic current	simultaneously acquiring topography, mechanical, electrical, and electrochemical map	difficulties in dual probe fabrication and theoretical consideration	imaging composite surfaces exhibiting electrochemical active sites in materials, biological and chemical sciences	[13, 137, 138, 141, 144]
SECM-STM	tunneling current, faradic current	separating topographical effects from surface electrochemical information	difficulties in elucidating precise geometry of the nanoelectrode, lack of electrochemical map with high resolution	resolving local electrochemistry at conducting surfaces	[116, 147]
SECM-SICM	ion current, faradic current	allowing for simultaneous topography and electrochemical map, generally noncontact topography and can be applied in biological materials	its resolution is usually lower than that of SECM-AFM	generating submicrometer resolution images based on topography, electrochemical and bioelectrochemical signals for local electrochemistry measurement, local pH measurement, as well as detections of enzymatic activity, cellular activity and cell membrane permeability	[119, 135, 172, 173, 176]
SECM-SECCM	ion current, faradic current	enabling high resolution electrochemical imaging with integrated positional feedback	spatial resolution is defined by the meniscus contact area, which is limited by tip size	enabling electrochemical measurements in non-aqueous environments and transient current measurements on insulating and reactive surfaces	[120]

Table 1 Comparison of in-situ EC-SPMs for electrocatalysis.

Name	Detected signal	Advantages	Disadvantages	Scope of applications	Ref.
EC-STM	tunneling current, surface current	atomic resolution	disruptive faradic current at the tip; tip potential region limited to electrolyte stability window or the stability of the tip material	nanoscale characterization of electrocatalytic processes associated with reactants adsorption/desorption and surface transformation under electrochemical reactions	[48, 49, 59,65, 69, 70]
EC-AFM	physical force, surface current	a wide range of materials including semiconductor and soft electrode materials	lower lateral resolution (typically 1‒20 nm) compared with EC-STM	morphological and mechanical changes in the interface between electrolyte and electrode with nanoscale resolution	[91, 94-97]
SECM	Faradic current	electrochemical images at the nanoscale	electrochemical activity and topography are not easily separated, diffusional broadening effect	extracting kinetics information quantitatively, resolving electrochemical activity over nanoscale systems	[98, 104, 108]
SECCM	ion current, surface current	the electrochemical properties of a surface are probed directly locally with integrated positional feedback, high mass transfer rates	resolution is limited by tip size	combined with other structural characterizing techniques, enabling high resolution correlative structure-activity investigations	[13, 41, 122, 128, 129]
SECM-AFM	physical force, faradic current	simultaneously acquiring topography, mechanical, electrical, and electrochemical map	difficulties in dual probe fabrication and theoretical consideration	imaging composite surfaces exhibiting electrochemical active sites in materials, biological and chemical sciences	[13, 137, 138, 141, 144]
SECM-STM	tunneling current, faradic current	separating topographical effects from surface electrochemical information	difficulties in elucidating precise geometry of the nanoelectrode, lack of electrochemical map with high resolution	resolving local electrochemistry at conducting surfaces	[116, 147]
SECM-SICM	ion current, faradic current	allowing for simultaneous topography and electrochemical map, generally noncontact topography and can be applied in biological materials	its resolution is usually lower than that of SECM-AFM	generating submicrometer resolution images based on topography, electrochemical and bioelectrochemical signals for local electrochemistry measurement, local pH measurement, as well as detections of enzymatic activity, cellular activity and cell membrane permeability	[119, 135, 172, 173, 176]
SECM-SECCM	ion current, faradic current	enabling high resolution electrochemical imaging with integrated positional feedback	spatial resolution is defined by the meniscus contact area, which is limited by tip size	enabling electrochemical measurements in non-aqueous environments and transient current measurements on insulating and reactive surfaces	[120]

Fig. 2. Schematic of EC-STM setup (iT: tunneling current; iS: electrochemical current).

Fig. 3. Illustration of an electrochemical cell configuration of EC-AFM.

Fig. 4. Schematic of SECM scanning modes. (a?c) Feedback mode. (d) Tip generation/substrate collection mode. (e) Substrate generation/tip collection mode. (f) Redox competitive mode.

Fig. 5. Schematic illustrating SECCM setups. (a) Double-barrel SECCM. (b) Single-barrel SECCM setups.

Fig. 6. EC-STM revealing catalytic activity with high resolution under HER conditions. (a?c) A scheme illustrating the STM tip is over the terrace (a) or over the step (b). The tunneling-current noise is likely increased when the tip is over a step edge. (c) STM line scans (constant-current mode) over Pt(111) surface in 0.1 mol L?1 HClO4 under different potentials to drive HER. (d?f) STM characterization of Pd islands on an Au(111) substrate under HER conditions. (d) STM image in air. (e) STM image in 0.1 mol L?1 sulfuric acid (constant-height mode). The inset indicates an atomically resolved image of the Au(111) substrate. (f) Line scans obtained from the experiment in Fig. 6(e). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [21]. Copyright 2017, Springer Nature.

Fig. 7. High-resolution SECM characterization of mixed-phase MoS2 under HER conditions. Feedback mode image of the sample on ITO substrate obtained with Fc redox mediator (a) and its corresponding 2D current map (b). (c) SECM image of a zoom-in area. (d) Line scans of HER activity using SG/TC mode across the same area in (c). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [209]. Copyright 2019, The Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 8. SECCM mapping of HER activities on MoS2 and MoS2-WS2 heterostructure. (a) Illustration of SECCM HER measurement over MoS2 surface in 0.5 mol L?1 H2SO4. Pd-H2 was used as a quasi-reference electrode. (b) SECCM current image of 1H MoS2 nanosheets on HOPG substrate. Scan size was 15 × 15 μm2, scan rate was 130 V s?1. Applied voltage was ?1.3 V vs. RHE. Overpotential (c) and Tafel slope plot (d) of the 1H MoS2 edge (red line), terrace (green line), and HOPG edge (gray line). High-resolution SECCM current image of MoS2-WS2 heterostructure at a potential of ?1.1 V vs. RHE (e) and its illustration (f). Scan size was 5 × 5 μm2. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [213]. Copyright 2020, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 9. Nanoscale active sites on low carbon steel for HER revealed by SECCM. (a) EBSD map of an SECCM scanned area of the low carbon steel surface. (b) SECCM isurf map of the corresponding area shown in a. Scan area was 40 × 40 μm2. (c) Histogram of the averaged isurf measured from 7.2 to 9.8 ms from each probe landing on low index grains that have a crystal orientation within 10° of (100), (101) and (111). (d) EBSD map of one area showing a HER active grain boundary and the misorientations of the two grains were labeled. (e) The corresponding SECCM map of the averaged current from 7.2 to 9.8 ms during a pulse at a potential of ?1.337 V vs. Ag/AgCl. (f) Enhanced HER activity on local MnS inclusions. (i) SEM, (ii) EDS Sulfur map and (iii) SECCM current map. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [211]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 10. EC-STM study of cobalt porphyrin catalyzed OER activity. Low magnification (a) and higher magnification (b) STM images of CoTPP adlayer on Au(111) substrate in 1 mol L?1 HClO4. STM measurements of CoTPP adlayer on Au(111) in 0.1 mol L?1 KOH (c) and 0.1 mol L?1 NaClO4 (d). (e) Cross section profiles along the white lines in b to d (from top to bottom). (f) Structure model for the CoTPP adlayer. (g) UV-vis spectra of CoTPP adlayer in DFM/H2O solution with KOH, NaClO4 and HClO4 electrolyte; STM images of CoTPP adlayer on Au(111) in 0.1 mol L?1 KOH at a potential of 1.30 V vs. Pt (Ebias = ?200.0 mV, It = 3.5 nA) (h) and 1.80 V vs. Pt (Ebias = ?685.0 mV, It = 3.5 nA) (i). (j,k) Cross section profiles along the white line in (h) and (i). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [75]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 11. Correlative operando microscopy of OER electrocatalyst. (a) SECCM current density line scans of OER activity over β-Co(OH)2 particles as shown in the corresponding SEM images using scanning constant height mode (constant lateral scanning rate: 30 nm s?1). The scan direction is indicated by dotted yellow arrows. Scale bars, 1 μm. (b) Topography graph and local current density maps at increasing applied potential using hopping scanning mode (scan rate: 1 V s?1). Scale bar, 5 μm. (c) Differential height operando EC-AFM maps at different applied voltages compared to the particle morphology at 0.96 V (open circuit-voltage). Scale bar, 500 nm. (d) Line scan of change in particle height as a function of voltage over β-Co(OH)2 particle. (e) EC-AFM current (indicated by red line) and EQCM isothermal (T = 25 °C) mass change with increasing voltage (indicated by blue line). Scan rate of EC-AFM and EQCM, 5 mV min?1. (f) Operando STXM line scan of Co oxidation state at different applied voltage. (g) OER Tafel slope obtained from the STXM cell versus that taken in a macroscopic RDE cell at a scan rate of 10 mV s?1. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [130]. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature.

Fig. 12. Visualizing ORR electrocatalytic performance on individual carbon nanotubes. (a) Illustration of SECCM setup of a nanopipette scanning over an individual SWNT, where dmeniscus and dSWNT correspond to meniscus and SWNT diameter, respectively. (b) ORR activity at a pristine SWNT studied by cyclic voltammograms. Scan rate: 100 mV s?1. (c) SECCM current map of a pristine SWNT. Inset demonstrates a line scan profile of ORR current across the SWNT. (d) SECCM current map of a pristine SWNT containing a kinked region. (e) Zoom-in map of D. The corresponding line scan profiles of a kinked region (red dashed line in (e)) and a selected pristine site (black dashed line in (e)). SECCM maps and line scans of a pristine SWNT before (f) and after (g) electrochemical oxidation. Scan rate: 50 mV s?1. SECCM maps of (c), (d), (e) and (f), (g) obtained at ?1.0 and ?0.75 V vs. Ag/AgCl QRCE, respectively. All measurements performed in aerated PBS (pH 7.2) with 25 mmol L?1 KCl. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [264]. Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 13. Microstructure dependence investigations of HER and CO2RR activities. (a) EBSD map along the z direction. The white box indicates the SECCM scanning area in Ar atmosphere. (b) SEM image of the scanned SECCM region. (c) SECCM current density map at ?1.05 V vs. Ag/AgCl QRCE. (d) Histogram of current densities from the SECCM scanned area. The scale bars in (b) and (c) are 5 μm. Microstructure dependence investigation of CO2 electroreduction activity. (e) EBSD map of sample A along the z direction. The white box indicates the SECCM scanning area in CO2 atmosphere. (f) SEM image of the SECCM scanned area. (g) SECCM map at ?1.05 V vs. Ag/AgCl. Scale bars in f and g are 5 μm. (h) Histogram of current densities from all the pixels marked in (f). (i) EBSD map of a highly deformed region in sample B along the z direction. (j) The corresponding SECCM map at ?1.05 V vs. Ag/AgCl. Scale bars in (i) and (j) are 5 μm. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [123]. Copyright 2021 Springer Nature.

参考文献

[1]	Z. W. Seh, J. Kibsgaard, C. F. Dickens, I. Chorkendorff, J. K. Nørskov, T. F. Jaramillo, Science, 2017, 355, eaad4998.
[2]	Y. Jiao, Y. Zheng, M. Jaroniec, S. Z. Qiao, Chem. Soc. Rev., 2015, 44, 2060-2086.
[3]	H. A. Gasteiger, S. S. Kocha, B. Sompalli, F. T. Wagner, Appl. Catal. B, 2005, 56, 9-35.
[4]	H. A. Gasteiger, N. M. Marković, Science, 2009, 324, 48-49.
[5]	D. T. Whipple, P. J. Kenis, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2010, 1, 3451-3458.
[6]	A. J. Bard, L. R. Faulkner, H. S. White, Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications, Hoboken, NJ, John Wiley&Sons, 2022.
[7]	A. Frumkin, N. Polianovskaya, I. Bagotskaya, N. Grigoryev, J. Electroanal. Chem. Interfacial Electrochem., 1971, 33, 319-328.
[8]	V. R. Stamenkovic, D. Strmcnik, P. P. Lopes, N. M. Markovic, Nat. Mater., 2017, 16, 57-69.
[9]	F. Calle-Vallejo, J. Tymoczko, V. Colic, Q. H. Vu, M. D. Pohl, K. Morgenstern, D. Loffreda, P. Sautet, W. Schuhmann, A. S. Bandarenka, Science, 2015, 350, 185-189.
[10]	M. Behrens, F. Studt, I. Kasatkin, S. Kühl, M. Hävecker, F. Abild-Pedersen, S. Zander, F. Girgsdies, P. Kurr, B.-L. Kniep, Science, 2012, 336, 893-897.
[11]	I. Lee, F. Delbecq, R. Morales, M. A. Albiter, F. Zaera, Nat. Mater., 2009, 8, 132-138.
[12]	J. Clausmeyer, W. Schuhmann, TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem., 2016, 79, 46-59.
[13]	C. L. Bentley, M. Kang, P. R. Unwin, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2018, 141, 2179-2193.
[14]	S. V. Kalinin, O. Dyck, N. Balke, S. Neumayer, W.-Y. Tsai, R. Vasudevan, D. Lingerfelt, M. Ahmadi, M. Ziatdinov, M. T. McDowell, ACS Nano, 2019, 13, 9735-9780.
[15]	Y. Lin, M. Zhou, X. Tai, H. Li, X. Han, J. Yu, Matter, 2021, 4, 2309-2339.
[16]	H. Feng, X. Xu, Y. Du, S. X. Dou, Electrochem. Energy Rev., 2021, 4, 249-268.
[17]	Y. Liang, J. H. Pfisterer, D. McLaughlin, C. Csoklich, L. Seidl, A. S. Bandarenka, O. Schneider, Small Methods, 2019, 3, 1800387.
[18]	R. W. Haid, R. M. Kluge, Y. Liang, A. S. Bandarenka, Small Methods, 2021, 5, 2000710.
[19]	E. A. Paoli, F. Masini, R. Frydendal, D. Deiana, C. Schlaup, M. Malizia, T. W. Hansen, S. Horch, I. E. Stephens, I. Chorkendorff, Chem. Sci., 2015, 6, 190-196.
[20]	Y.-G. Kim, J. H. Baricuatro, A. Javier, J. M. Gregoire, M. P. Soriaga, Langmuir, 2014, 30, 15053-15056.
[21]	J. H. Pfisterer, Y. Liang, O. Schneider, A. S. Bandarenka, Nature, 2017, 549, 74-77.
[22]	Z.-Z. Shen, S.-Y. Lang, Y. Shi, J.-M. Ma, R. Wen, L.-J. Wan, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2019, 141, 6900-6905.
[23]	P. Grosse, D. Gao, F. Scholten, I. Sinev, H. Mistry, B. Roldan Cuenya, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2018, 57, 6192-6197.
[24]	G. H. Simon, C. S. Kley, B. Roldan Cuenya, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2021, 60, 2561-2568.
[25]	M. R. Nellist, J. Qiu, F. A. Laskowski, F. M. Toma, S. W. Boettcher, ACS Energy Lett., 2018, 3, 2286-2291.
[26]	H. Li, M. Du, M. J. Mleczko, A. L. Koh, Y. Nishi, E. Pop, A. J. Bard, X. Zheng, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2016, 138, 5123-5129.
[27]	M. Du, L. Cui, Y. Cao, A. J. Bard, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2015, 137, 7397-7403.
[28]	I. Liberman, W. He, R. Shimoni, R. Ifraemov, I. Hod, Chem. Sci., 2020, 11, 180-185.
[29]	T. Sun, D. Wang, M. V. Mirkin, H. Cheng, J.-C. Zheng, R. M. Richards, F. Lin, H. L. Xin, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 2019, 116, 11618-11623.
[30]	T. Tarnev, H. B. Aiyappa, A. Botz, T. Erichsen, A. Ernst, C. Andronescu, W. Schuhmann, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2019, 58, 14265-14269.
[31]	J. Halbritter, G. Repphun, S. Vinzelberg, G. Staikov, W. Lorenz, Electrochim. Acta, 1995, 40, 1385-1394.
[32]	M. Esplandiu, M. Carot, F. Cometto, V. Macagno, E. Patrito, Surf. Sci., 2006, 600, 155-172.
[33]	J. Inukai, D. A. Tryk, T. Abe, M. Wakisaka, H. Uchida, M. Watanabe, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013, 135, 1476-1490.
[34]	S. Manne, J. Massie, V. Elings, P. Hansma, A. Gewirth, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, 1991, 9, 950-954.
[35]	L. Xie, J. Wang, C. Shi, J. Huang, H. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Liu, H. Zeng, J. Phys. Chem. C, 2016, 120, 22433-22442.
[36]	X. Deng, F. Galli, M. T. Koper, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2018, 140, 13285-13291.
[37]	A. K. Yagati, J. Min, J.-W. Choi, Mod. Electrochem. Methods Nano, Surf. Corros. Sci., 2014, 55-81.
[38]	A. J. Bard, M. V. Mirkin, Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy, Boca Raton, CRC Press, 2001.
[39]	S. Amemiya, A. J. Bard, F.-R. F. Fan, M. V. Mirkin, P. R. Unwin, Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem., 2008, 1, 95-131.
[40]	N. Ebejer, A. G. Güell, S. C. Lai, K. McKelvey, M. E. Snowden, P. R. Unwin, Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem., 2013, 6, 329-351.
[41]	N. Ebejer, M. Schnippering, A. W. Colburn, M. A. Edwards, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2010, 82, 9141-9145.
[42]	N. Limani, A. Boudet, N. Blanchard, B. Jousselme, R. Cornut, Chem. Sci., 2021, 12, 71-98.
[43]	D. Polcari, P. Dauphin-Ducharme, J. Mauzeroll, Chem. Rev., 2016, 116, 13234-13278.
[44]	O. J. Wahab, M. Kang, P. R. Unwin, Curr. Opin. Electrochem., 2020, 22, 120-128.
[45]	A. A. Gewirth, B. K. Niece, Chem. Rev., 1997, 97, 1129-1162.
[46]	M. P. Soriaga, Prog. Surf. Sci., 1992, 39, 325-443.
[47]	R. Sonnenfeld, P. K. Hansma, Science, 1986, 232, 211-213.
[48]	H. Y. Liu, F. R. F. Fan, C. W. Lin, A. J. Bard, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1986, 108, 3838-3839.
[49]	K. Itaya, E. Tomita, Surf. Sci., 1988, 201, L507-L512.
[50]	G. Binnig, C. F. Quate, C. Gerber, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1986, 56, 930-933.
[51]	B. Drake, C. Prater, A. Weisenhorn, S. Gould, T. Albrecht, C. Quate, D. Cannell, H. Hansma, P. Hansma, Science, 1989, 243, 1586-1589.
[52]	M. Dayton, J. Brown, K. Stutts, R. Wightman, Anal. Chem., 1980, 52, 946-950.
[53]	R. C. Engstrom, M. Weber, D. J. Wunder, R. Burgess, S. Winquist, Anal. Chem., 1986, 58, 844-848.
[54]	R. C. Engstrom, T. Meaney, R. Tople, R. M. Wightman, Anal. Chem., 1987, 59, 2005-2010.
[55]	C. W. Lin, F.-R. F. Fan, A. J. Bard, J. Electrochem. Soc., 1987, 134, 1038-1039.
[56]	A. J. Bard, F. R. F. Fan, J. Kwak, O. Lev, Anal. Chem., 1989, 61, 132-138.
[57]	M. E. Snowden, A. G. Güell, S. C. Lai, K. McKelvey, N. Ebejer, M. A. O’Connell, A. W. Colburn, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2012, 84, 2483-2491.
[58]	K. Itaya, Prog. Surf. Sci., 1998, 58, 121-248.
[59]	M. Wilms, M. Kruft, G. Bermes, K. Wandelt, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 1999, 70, 3641-3650.
[60]	R. Wiesendanger, H.-J. Güntherodt, W. Baumeister, Scanning Tunneling Microscopy II: Further Applications and Related Scanning Techniques, Berlin, Springer, 1995.
[61]	E. Abelev, N. Sezin, Y. Ein-Eli, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 2005, 76, 106105.
[62]	M. Salerno, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 2010, 81, 093703.
[63]	D. M. Kolb, F. C. Simeone, Characterization and Modification of Electrode Surfaces by in situ STM, Hoboken, USA, Wiley, 2010.
[64]	U. Stimming, R. Vogel, D. Kolb, T. Will, J. Power Sources, 1993, 43, 169-180.
[65]	M. Hugelmann, W. Schindler, Surf. Sci., 2003, 541, L643-L648.
[66]	G. Nagy, T. Wandlowski, Langmuir, 2003, 19, 10271-10280.
[67]	D. A. Bonnell, B. D. Huey, Scanning Probe Microscopy & Spectroscopy: Theory, Techniques, and Applications, Bern, Switzerland, 2001, 7-42.
[68]	K. Gentz, K. Wandelt, Chimia, 2012, 66, 44-51.
[69]	Q. Xu, T. He, D. O. Wipf, Langmuir, 2007, 23, 9098-9103.
[70]	L. Jacobse, Y.-F. Huang, M. Koper, M. J. Rost, Nat. Mater., 2018, 17, 277-282.
[71]	D. Kolb, J. Schneider, Surf. Sci., 1985, 162, 764-775.
[72]	D. Friebel, C. Schlaup, P. Broekmann, K. Wandelt, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 2142-2145.
[73]	L.-J. Wan, T. Moriyama, M. Ito, H. Uchida, M. Watanabe, Chem. Commun., 2002, 58-59.
[74]	F. Maroun, F. Ozanam, O. Magnussen, R. Behm, Science, 2001, 293, 1811-1814.
[75]	X. Wang, Z.-F. Cai, D. Wang, L.-J. Wan, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2019, 141, 7665-7669.
[76]	D. Den Boer, M. Li, T. Habets, P. Iavicoli, A. E. Rowan, R. J. Nolte, S. Speller, D. B. Amabilino, S. De Feyter, J. A. Elemans, Nat. Chem., 2013, 5, 621-627.
[77]	N. T. Hai, S. Furukawa, T. Vosch, S. De Feyter, P. Broekmann, K. Wandelt, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2009, 11, 5422-5430.
[78]	T. H. Phan, T. Kosmala, K. Wandelt, Surf. Sci., 2015, 631, 207-212.
[79]	C. Stumm, M. Bertram, M. Kastenmeier, F. D. Speck, Z. Sun, J. Rodríguez-Fernández, J. V. Lauritsen, K. J. Mayrhofer, S. Cherevko, O. Brummel, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2021, 31, 2009923.
[80]	J. H. Pfisterer, M. Baghernejad, G. Giuzio, K. F. Domke, Nat. Commun., 2019, 10, 5702.
[81]	J. H. Baricuatro, Y.-G. Kim, C. L. Korzeniewski, M. P. Soriaga, Electrochem. Commun., 2018, 91, 1-4.
[82]	O. M. Magnussen, L. Zitzler, B. Gleich, M. R. Vogt, R. J. Behm, Electrochim. Acta, 2001, 46, 3725-3733.
[83]	O. Magnussen, W. Polewska, L. Zitzler, R. Behm, Faraday Discuss., 2002, 121, 43-52.
[84]	T. Tansel, O. Magnussen, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2006, 96, 026101.
[85]	M. Labayen, C. Ramirez, W. Schattke, O. Magnussen, Nat. Mater., 2003, 2, 783-787.
[86]	M. Labayen, C. Haak, O. Magnussen, Phys. Rev. B, 2005, 71, 241409.
[87]	H. Matsushima, A. Taranovskyy, C. Haak, Y. Gründer, O. M. Magnussen, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2009, 131, 10362-10363.
[88]	R. Möller, A. Esslinger, B. Koslowski, Appl. Phys. Lett., 1989, 55, 2360-2362.
[89]	J. Schaffert, M. C. Cottin, A. Sonntag, H. Karacuban, C. A. Bobisch, N. Lorente, J.-P. Gauyacq, R. Möller, Nat. Mater., 2013, 12, 223-227.
[90]	C. Dette, S. W. Boettcher, Nature, 2017, 549, 34-35.
[91]	S. Manne, P. Hansma, J. Massie, V. Elings, A. Gewirth, Science, 1991, 251, 183-186.
[92]	G. Haugstad, Atomic Force Microscopy: Understanding Basic Modes and Advanced Applications, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, USA, 2012.
[93]	R. Garcıa, R. Perez, Surf. Sci. Rep., 2002, 47, 197-301.
[94]	T. Fukuma, K. Kobayashi, K. Matsushige, H. Yamada, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2005, 87, 034101.
[95]	T. Utsunomiya, S. Tatsumi, Y. Yokota, K.-I. Fukui, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2015, 17, 12616-12622.
[96]	M. R. Nellist, F. A. Laskowski, J. Qiu, H. Hajibabaei, K. Sivula, T. W. Hamann, S. W. Boettcher, Nat. Energy, 2018, 3, 46-52.
[97]	W.-Y. Tsai, R. Wang, S. Boyd, V. Augustyn, N. Balke, Nano Energy, 2021, 81, 105592.
[98]	J. Kwak, A. J. Bard, Anal. Chem., 1989, 61, 1221-1227.
[99]	J. Kwak, A. J. Bard, Anal. Chem., 1989, 61, 1794-1799.
[100]	S.-J. Kim, S.-C. Lee, C. Lee, M. H. Kim, Y. Lee, Nano Energy, 2018, 48, 134-143.
[101]	B. Sidhureddy, S. Prins, J. Wen, A. R. Thiruppathi, M. Govindhan, A. Chen, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2019, 11, 18295-18304.
[102]	J. Kim, C. Renault, N. Nioradze, N. Arroyo-Curras, K. C. Leonard, A. J. Bard, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2016, 138, 8560-8568.
[103]	A. J. Bard, F.-R. F. Fan, D. T. Pierce, P. R. Unwin, D. O. Wipf, F. Zhou, Science, 1991, 254, 68-74.
[104]	P. Sun, M. V. Mirkin, Anal. Chem., 2006, 78, 6526-6534.
[105]	B. Liu, A. J. Bard, M. V. Mirkin, S. E. Creager, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2004, 126, 1485-1492.
[106]	C. Lee, J. Kwak, F. C. Anson, Anal. Chem., 1991, 63, 1501-1504.
[107]	N. Baltes, L. Thouin, C. Amatore, J. Heinze, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2004, 43, 1431-1435.
[108]	S. M. Fonseca, A. L. Barker, S. Ahmed, T. J. Kemp, P. R. Unwin, Chem. Commun., 2003, 1002-1003.
[109]	K. Eckhard, X. Chen, F. Turcu, W. Schuhmann, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2006, 8, 5359-5365.
[110]	J. M. Barforoush, D. T. Jantz, T. E. Seuferling, K. R. Song, L. C. Cummings, K. C. Leonard, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2017, 5, 11661-11670.
[111]	Z. Liang, H. S. Ahn, A. J. Bard, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2017, 139, 4854-4858.
[112]	C. I. Shaughnessy, D. T. Jantz, K. C. Leonard, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2017, 5, 22743-22749.
[113]	J. V. Macpherson, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2000, 72, 276-285.
[114]	C. Kranz, G. Friedbacher, B. Mizaikoff, A. Lugstein, J. Smoliner, E. Bertagnolli, Anal. Chem., 2001, 73, 2491-2500.
[115]	J. Meier, K. Friedrich, U. Stimming, Faraday Discuss., 2002, 121, 365-372.
[116]	T. H. Treutler, G. Wittstock, Electrochim. Acta, 2003, 48, 2923-2932.
[117]	M. A. O’Connell, A. J. Wain, Anal. Chem., 2014, 86, 12100-12107.
[118]	M. A. O'Connell, J. R. Lewis, A. J. Wain, Chem. Commun., 2015, 51, 10314-10317.
[119]	A. Page, M. Kang, A. Armitstead, D. Perry, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2017, 89, 3021-3028.
[120]	B. Paulose Nadappuram, K. McKelvey, J. C. Byers, A. G. Güell, A. W. Colburn, R. A. Lazenby, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2015, 87, 3566-3573.
[121]	C. G. Williams, M. A. Edwards, A. L. Colley, J. V. Macpherson, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2009, 81, 2486-2495.
[122]	C. L. Bentley, M. Kang, P. R. Unwin, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2017, 139, 16813-16821.
[123]	R. G. Mariano, M. Kang, O. J. Wahab, I. J. McPherson, J. A. Rabinowitz, P. R. Unwin, M. W. Kanan, Nat. Mater., 2021, 20, 1000-1006.
[124]	C. L. Bentley, M. Kang, F. M. Maddar, F. Li, M. Walker, J. Zhang, P. R. Unwin, Chem. Sci., 2017, 8, 6583-6593.
[125]	J. W. Hill, C. M. Hill, Nano Lett., 2019, 19, 5710-5716.
[126]	S. C. Lai, P. V. Dudin, J. V. Macpherson, P. R. Unwin, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2011, 133, 10744-10747.
[127]	D. Martín-Yerga, A. Costa-García, P. R. Unwin, ACS Sens., 2019, 4, 2173-2180.
[128]	S. C. Lai, A. N. Patel, K. McKelvey, P. R. Unwin, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2012, 51, 5405-5408.
[129]	C.-H. Chen, L. Jacobse, K. McKelvey, S. C. Lai, M. T. Koper, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2015, 87, 5782-5789.
[130]	J. T. Mefford, A. R. Akbashev, M. Kang, C. L. Bentley, W. E. Gent, H. D. Deng, D. H. Alsem, Y.-S. Yu, N. J. Salmon, D. A. Shapiro, Nature, 2021, 593, 67-73.
[131]	B. D. Aaronson, C.-H. Chen, H. Li, M. T. Koper, S. C. Lai, P. R. Unwin, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013, 135, 3873-3880.
[132]	C.-H. Chen, K. E. Meadows, A. Cuharuc, S. C. Lai, P. R. Unwin, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2014, 16, 18545-18552.
[133]	O. J. Wahab, M. Kang, E. Daviddi, M. Walker, P. R. Unwin, ACS Catal., 2022, 12, 6578.
[134]	A. N. Patel, C. Kranz, Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem., 2018, 11, 329-350.
[135]	Y. Takahashi, A. I. Shevchuk, P. Novak, Y. Zhang, N. Ebejer, J. V. Macpherson, P. R. Unwin, A. J. Pollard, D. Roy, C. A. Clifford, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2011, 50, 9638-9642.
[136]	J. Seifert, J. Rheinlaender, P. Novak, Y. E. Korchev, T. E. Schäffer, Langmuir, 2015, 31, 6807-6813.
[137]	J. V. Macpherson, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2001, 73, 550-557.
[138]	A. Kueng, C. Kranz, B. Mizaikoff, A. Lugstein, E. Bertagnolli, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2003, 82, 1592-1594.
[139]	J. Velmurugan, A. Agrawal, S. An, E. Choudhary, V. A. Szalai, Anal. Chem., 2017, 89, 2687-2691.
[140]	A. J. Wain, D. Cox, S. Zhou, A. Turnbull, Electrochem. Commun., 2011, 13, 78-81.
[141]	J. Abbou, C. Demaille, M. Druet, J. Moiroux, Anal. Chem., 2002, 74, 6355-6363.
[142]	P. Knittel, O. Bibikova, C. Kranz, Faraday Discuss., 2016, 193, 353-369.
[143]	H. Shin, P. J. Hesketh, B. Mizaikoff, C. Kranz, Anal. Chem., 2007, 79, 4769-4777.
[144]	P. S. Dobson, J. M. Weaver, M. N. Holder, P. R. Unwin, J. V. Macpherson, Anal. Chem., 2005, 77, 424-434.
[145]	O. Sklyar, A. Kueng, C. Kranz, B. Mizaikoff, A. Lugstein, E. Bertagnolli, G. Wittstock, Anal. Chem., 2005, 77, 764-771.
[146]	A. Eifert, B. Mizaikoff, C. Kranz, Micron, 2015, 68, 27-35.
[147]	J. F. Edmondson, G. N. Meloni, G. Costantini, P. R. Unwin, ChemElectroChem, 2020, 7, 697-706.
[148]	P. Hansma, B. Drake, O. Marti, S. Gould, C. Prater, Science, 1989, 243, 641-643.
[149]	C. Li, N. Johnson, V. Ostanin, A. Shevchuk, L. Ying, Y. Korchev, D. Klenerman, Prog. Nat. Sci., 2008, 18, 671-677.
[150]	C.-C. Chen, L. A. Baker, Analyst, 2011, 136, 90-97.
[151]	K. McKelvey, D. Perry, J. C. Byers, A. W. Colburn, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2014, 86, 3639-3646.
[152]	P. Novak, C. Li, A. I. Shevchuk, R. Stepanyan, M. Caldwell, S. Hughes, T. G. Smart, J. Gorelik, V. P. Ostanin, M. J. Lab, Nat. Methods, 2009, 6, 279-281.
[153]	Y. Takahashi, Y. Murakami, K. Nagamine, H. Shiku, S. Aoyagi, T. Yasukawa, M. Kanzaki, T. Matsue, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2010, 12, 10012-10017.
[154]	H. Ida, Y. Takahashi, A. Kumatani, H. Shiku, T. Matsue, Anal. Chem., 2017, 89, 6015-6020.
[155]	S. Simeonov, T. E. Schäffer, Nanoscale, 2019, 11, 8579-8587.
[156]	Y. K. Yong, S. S. Aphale, S. R. Moheimani, IEEE Trans. Nanotechnol., 2008, 8, 46-54.
[157]	C.-C. Chen, Y. Zhou, C. A. Morris, J. Hou, L. A. Baker, Anal. Chem., 2013, 85, 3621-3628.
[158]	J. Zhuang, R. Guo, F. Li, D. Yu, Meas. Sci. Technol., 2016, 27, 085402.
[159]	Y. Wen, J. Song, X. Fan, D. Hussain, H. Zhang, H. Xie, Scanning, 2018, 2018, 3979576.
[160]	C. Wei, A. J. Bard, S. W. Feldberg, Anal. Chem., 1997, 69, 4627-4633.
[161]	N. Sa, L. A. Baker, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2011, 133, 10398-10401.
[162]	K. McKelvey, S. L. Kinnear, D. Perry, D. Momotenko, P. R. Unwin, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2014, 136, 13735-13744.
[163]	J. Rheinlaender, T. E. Schäffer, Nanoscale, 2019, 11, 6982-6989.
[164]	C.-C. Chen, M. A. Derylo, L. A. Baker, Anal. Chem., 2009, 81, 4742-4751.
[165]	C.-C. Chen, Y. Zhou, L. A. Baker, ACS Nano, 2011, 5, 8404-8411.
[166]	D. Momotenko, K. McKelvey, M. Kang, G. N. Meloni, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2016, 88, 2838-2846.
[167]	M. Kang, D. Perry, C. L. Bentley, G. West, A. Page, P. R. Unwin, ACS Nano, 2017, 11, 9525-9535.
[168]	D. Perry, R. Al Botros, D. Momotenko, S. L. Kinnear, P. R. Unwin, ACS Nano, 2015, 9, 7266-7276.
[169]	L. H. Klausen, T. Fuhs, M. Dong, Nat. Commun., 2016, 7, 12447.
[170]	D. Perry, B. Paulose Nadappuram, D. Momotenko, P. D. Voyias, A. Page, G. Tripathi, B. G. Frenguelli, P. R. Unwin, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2016, 138, 3152-3160.
[171]	A. Page, D. Perry, P. Young, D. Mitchell, B. G. Frenguelli, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2016, 88, 10854-10859.
[172]	D. J. Comstock, J. W. Elam, M. J. Pellin, M. C. Hersam, Anal. Chem., 2010, 82, 1270-1276.
[173]	Y. Takahashi, A. I. Shevchuk, P. Novak, Y. Murakami, H. Shiku, Y. E. Korchev, T. Matsue, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2010, 132, 10118-10126.
[174]	B. P. Nadappuram, K. McKelvey, R. Al Botros, A. W. Colburn, P. R. Unwin, Anal. Chem., 2013, 85, 8070-8074.
[175]	C. A. Morris, C.-C. Chen, T. Ito, L. A. Baker, J. Electrochem. Soc., 2013, 160, H430-H435.
[176]	Y. Zhang, Y. Takahashi, S. P. Hong, F. Liu, J. Bednarska, P. S. Goff, P. Novak, A. Shevchuk, S. Gopal, I. Barozzi, Nat. Commun., 2019, 10, 5610.
[177]	X. Wang, Y.-Q. Wang, Y.-C. Feng, D. Wang, L.-J. Wan, Chem. Soc. Rev., 2021, 50, 5832-5849.
[178]	D. T. Jantz, K. C. Leonard, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2018, 57, 7431-7440.
[179]	H. S. Ahn, A. J. Bard, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2016, 138, 313-318.
[180]	Y. Wang, S. A. Skaanvik, X. Xiong, S. Wang, M. Dong, Matter, 2021, 4, 3483-3514.
[181]	S. Trasatti, J. Electroanal. Chem. Interfacial Electrochem., 1972, 39, 163-184.
[182]	J. K. Nørskov, T. Bligaard, A. Logadottir, J. Kitchin, J. G. Chen, S. Pandelov, U. Stimming, J. Electrochem. Soc., 2005, 152, J23-J26.
[183]	B. Hinnemann, P. G. Moses, J. Bonde, K. P. Jørgensen, J. H. Nielsen, S. Horch, I. Chorkendorff, J. K. Nørskov, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2005, 127, 5308-5309.
[184]	T. F. Jaramillo, K. P. Jørgensen, J. Bonde, J. H. Nielsen, S. Horch, I. Chorkendorff, Science, 2007, 317, 100-102.
[185]	N. Danilovic, R. Subbaraman, D. Strmcnik, K. C. Chang, A. Paulikas, V. Stamenkovic, N. M. Markovic, Angew. Chem Int. Ed., 2012, 51, 12495-12498.
[186]	Y. Zheng, Y. Jiao, A. Vasileff, S. Z. Qiao, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2018, 57, 7568-7579.
[187]	R. Subbaraman, D. Tripkovic, D. Strmcnik, K.-C. Chang, M. Uchimura, A. P. Paulikas, V. Stamenkovic, N. M. Markovic, Science, 2011, 334, 1256-1260.
[188]	R. Subbaraman, D. Tripkovic, K.-C. Chang, D. Strmcnik, A. P. Paulikas, P. Hirunsit, M. Chan, J. Greeley, V. Stamenkovic, N. M. Markovic, Nat. Mater., 2012, 11, 550-557.
[189]	K. Elbert, J. Hu, Z. Ma, Y. Zhang, G. Chen, W. An, P. Liu, H. S. Isaacs, R. R. Adzic, J. X. Wang, ACS Catal., 2015, 5, 6764-5772.
[190]	S. T. Hunt, M. Milina, Z. Wang, Y. Román-Leshkov, Energy Environ. Sci., 2016, 9, 3290-3301.
[191]	J. Zheng, W. Sheng, Z. Zhuang, B. Xu, Y. Yan, Sci. Adv., 2016, 2, e1501602.
[192]	J. Durst, A. Siebel, C. Simon, F. Hasché, J. Herranz, H. Gasteiger, Energy Environ. Sci., 2014, 7, 2255-2260.
[193]	M. D. Woodroof, J. A. Wittkopf, S. Gu, Y. S. Yan, Electrochem. Commun., 2015, 61, 57-60.
[194]	S. Zhu, X. Qin, F. Xiao, S. Yang, Y. Xu, Z. Tan, J. Li, J. Yan, Q. Chen, M. Chen, Nat. Catal., 2021, 4, 711-718.
[195]	T. Wang, M. Wang, H. Yang, M. Xu, C. Zuo, K. Feng, M. Xie, J. Deng, J. Zhong, W. Zhou, Energy Environ. Sci., 2019, 12, 3522-3529.
[196]	W. Sheng, Z. Zhuang, M. Gao, J. Zheng, J. G. Chen, Y. Yan, Nat. Commun., 2015, 6, 5848.
[197]	M. Wang, H. Yang, J. Shi, Y. Chen, Y. Zhou, L. Wang, S. Di, X. Zhao, J. Zhong, T. Cheng, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2021, 60, 5771-5777.
[198]	D. Strmcnik, M. Uchimura, C. Wang, R. Subbaraman, N. Danilovic, D. Van Der Vliet, A. P. Paulikas, V. R. Stamenkovic, N. M. Markovic, Nat. Chem., 2013, 5, 300-306.
[199]	X. Chia, M. Pumera, Nat. Catal., 2018, 1, 909-921.
[200]	M. A. Lukowski, A. S. Daniel, F. Meng, A. Forticaux, L. Li, S. Jin, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013, 135, 10274-10277.
[201]	J. Xie, H. Zhang, S. Li, R. Wang, X. Sun, M. Zhou, J. Zhou, X. W. Lou, Y. Xie, Adv. Mater., 2013, 25, 5807-5813.
[202]	D. Voiry, M. Salehi, R. Silva, T. Fujita, M. Chen, T. Asefa, V. B. Shenoy, G. Eda, M. Chhowalla, Nano Lett., 2013, 13, 6222-6227.
[203]	S. Z. Yang, Y. Gong, P. Manchanda, Y. Y. Zhang, G. Ye, S. Chen, L. Song, S. T. Pantelides, P. M. Ajayan, M. F. Chisholm, Adv. Mater., 2018, 30, 1803477.
[204]	T. Sun, J. Wang, X. Chi, Y. Lin, Z. Chen, X. Ling, C. Qiu, Y. Xu, L. Song, W. Chen, ACS Catal., 2018, 8, 7585-7592.
[205]	E. Mitterreiter, Y. Liang, M. Golibrzuch, D. McLaughlin, C. Csoklich, J. D. Bartl, A. Holleitner, U. Wurstbauer, A. S. Bandarenka, NPJ 2D Mater. Appl., 2019, 3, 25.
[206]	J. H. Lee, W. S. Jang, S. W. Han, H. K. Baik, Langmuir, 2014, 30, 9866-9873.
[207]	H. Zhu, G. Gao, M. Du, J. Zhou, K. Wang, W. Wu, X. Chen, Y. Li, P. Ma, W. Dong, Adv. Mater., 2018, 30, 1707301.
[208]	A. Djire, X. Wang, C. Xiao, O. C. Nwamba, M. V. Mirkin, N. R. Neale, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2020, 30, 2001136.
[209]	T. Sun, H. Zhang, X. Wang, J. Liu, C. Xiao, S. U. Nanayakkara, J. L. Blackburn, M. V. Mirkin, E. M. Miller, Nanoscale Horiz., 2019, 4, 619-624.
[210]	V. Shkirskiy, L. Yule, E. Daviddi, C. Bentley, J. Aarons, G. West, P. Unwin, J. Electrochem. Soc., 2020, 167, 041507.
[211]	L. Yule, V. Shkirskiy, J. Aarons, G. West, C. Bentley, B. Shollock, P. Unwin, J. Phys. Chem. C, 2019, 123, 24146-24155.
[212]	R. Gao, M. A. Edwards, Y. Qiu, K. Barman, H. S. White, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2020, 142, 8890-8896.
[213]	Y. Takahashi, Y. Kobayashi, Z. Wang, Y. Ito, M. Ota, H. Ida, A. Kumatani, K. Miyazawa, T. Fujita, H. Shiku, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2020, 59, 3601-3608.
[214]	B. Tao, P. R. Unwin, C. L. Bentley, J. Phys. Chem. C, 2019, 124, 789-798.
[215]	C. L. Bentley, C. Andronescu, M. Smialkowski, M. Kang, T. Tarnev, B. Marler, P. R. Unwin, U. P. Apfel, W. Schuhmann, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2018, 57, 4093-4097.
[216]	D.-Q. Liu, B. Tao, H.-C. Ruan, C. L. Bentley, P. R. Unwin, Chem. Commun., 2019, 55, 628-631.
[217]	A. Kumatani, C. Miura, H. Kuramochi, T. Ohto, M. Wakisaka, Y. Nagata, H. Ida, Y. Takahashi, K. Hu, S. Jeong, Adv. Sci., 2019, 6, 1900119.
[218]	Y. Dong, H. Sun, G. Liu, Sustainable Energy Fuels, 2021, 5, 4115-4125.
[219]	H. S. Ahn, A. J. Bard, Anal. Chem., 2017, 89, 8574-8579.
[220]	J. Rodríguez-López, M. A. Alpuche-Avilés, A. J. Bard, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2008, 130, 16985-16995.
[221]	J. Rodríguez-López, A. J. Bard, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2010, 132, 5121-5129.
[222]	K. C. Leonard, A. J. Bard, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013, 135, 15890-15896.
[223]	J. Zhu, L. Hu, P. Zhao, L. Y. S. Lee, K.-Y. Wong, Chem. Rev., 2019, 120, 851-918.
[224]	M. Choi, N. P. Siepser, S. Jeong, Y. Wang, G. Jagdale, X. Ye, L. A. Baker, Nano Lett., 2020, 20, 1233-1239.
[225]	T. Reier, M. Oezaslan, P. Strasser, ACS Catal., 2012, 2, 1765-1772.
[226]	Y. Lee, J. Suntivich, K. J. May, E. E. Perry, Y. Shao-Horn, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2012, 3, 399-404.
[227]	R. Kötz, H. Lewerenz, S. Stucki, J. Electrochem. Soc., 1983, 130, 825.
[228]	S. Cherevko, A. R. Zeradjanin, A. A. Topalov, N. Kulyk, I. Katsounaros, K. J. Mayrhofer, ChemCatChem, 2014, 6, 2219-2223.
[229]	S. Cherevko, S. Geiger, O. Kasian, N. Kulyk, J.-P. Grote, A. Savan, B. R. Shrestha, S. Merzlikin, B. Breitbach, A. Ludwig, Catal. Today, 2016, 262, 170-180.
[230]	E. Antolini, ACS Catal., 2014, 4, 1426-1440.
[231]	Z. Lu, H. Wang, D. Kong, K. Yan, P.-C. Hsu, G. Zheng, H. Yao, Z. Liang, X. Sun, Y. Cui, Nat. Commun., 2014, 5, 4345.
[232]	C. Xia, Q. Jiang, C. Zhao, M. N. Hedhili, H. N. Alshareef, Adv. Mater., 2016, 28, 77-85.
[233]	Y. Liu, C. Xiao, M. Lyu, Y. Lin, W. Cai, P. Huang, W. Tong, Y. Zou, Y. Xie, Angew. Chem.Int. Ed., 2015, 54, 11231-11235.
[234]	D. Li, H. Baydoun, C. N. Verani, S. L. Brock, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2016, 138, 4006-4009.
[235]	Y. Zhang, B. Ouyang, J. Xu, G. Jia, S. Chen, R. S. Rawat, H. J. Fan, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2016, 55, 8670-8674.
[236]	J. Zhang, Z. Zhao, Z. Xia, L. Dai, Nat. Nanotechnol., 2015, 10, 444-452.
[237]	E. Mirzakulova, R. Khatmullin, J. Walpita, T. Corrigan, N. M. Vargas-Barbosa, S. Vyas, S. Oottikkal, S. F. Manzer, C. M. Hadad, K. D. Glusac, Nat. Chem., 2012, 4, 794-801.
[238]	J. Rossmeisl, Z.-W. Qu, H. Zhu, G.-J. Kroes, J. K. Nørskov, J. Electroanal. Chem., 2007, 607, 83-89.
[239]	I. C. Man, H. Y. Su, F. Calle-Vallejo, H. A. Hansen, J. I. Martínez, N. G. Inoglu, J. Kitchin, T. F. Jaramillo, J. K. Nørskov, J. Rossmeisl, ChemCatChem, 2011, 3, 1159-1165.
[240]	A. Grimaud, O. Diaz-Morales, B. Han, W. T. Hong, Y.-L. Lee, L. Giordano, K. A. Stoerzinger, M. Koper, Y. Shao-Horn, Nat. Chem., 2017, 9, 457-465.
[241]	J. S. Yoo, X. Rong, Y. Liu, A. M. Kolpak, ACS Catal., 2018, 8, 4628-4636.
[242]	A. Grimaud, W. T. Hong, Y. Shao-Horn, J.-M. Tarascon, Nat. Mater., 2016, 15, 121-126.
[243]	E. Fabbri, T. J. Schmidt, ACS Catal., 2018, 8, 9765-9774.
[244]	J. Deng, M. R. Nellist, M. B. Stevens, C. Dette, Y. Wang, S. W. Boettcher, Nano Lett., 2017, 17, 6922-6926.
[245]	C. Dette, M. R. Hurst, J. Deng, M. R. Nellist, S. W. Boettcher, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2018, 11, 5590-5594.
[246]	Z. Jin, A. J. Bard, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2021, 60, 794-799.
[247]	H. S. Ahn, A. J. Bard, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2015, 137, 612-615.
[248]	M. Tarasevich, O. Korchagin, Russ. J. Electrochem., 2013, 49, 600-618.
[249]	D. L. Langhus, Morden Electrochemistry: Volume 1, ionics, Newyork, Springer, 1999.
[250]	X. Ge, A. Sumboja, D. Wuu, T. An, B. Li, F. T. Goh, T. A. Hor, Y. Zong, Z. Liu, ACS Catal., 2015, 5, 4643-4667.
[251]	M. Shao, Q. Chang, J.-P. Dodelet, R. Chenitz, Chem. Rev., 2016, 116, 3594-3657.
[252]	R. Ma, G. Lin, Y. Zhou, Q. Liu, T. Zhang, G. Shan, M. Yang, J. Wang, NPJ Comput. Mater., 2019, 5, 78.
[253]	C. E. Beall, E. Fabbri, T. J. Schmidt, ACS Catal., 2021, 11, 3094-3114.
[254]	M. K. Debe, Nature, 2012, 486, 43-51.
[255]	X. Wang, Z. Li, Y. Qu, T. Yuan, W. Wang, Y. Wu, Y. Li, Chem, 2019, 5, 1486-1511.
[256]	Y. Jiang, Y. Lu, X. Lv, D. Han, Q. Zhang, L. Niu, W. Chen, ACS Catal., 2013, 3, 1263-1271.
[257]	K. Chen, K. Liu, P. An, H. Li, Y. Lin, J. Hu, C. Jia, J. Fu, H. Li, H. Liu, Nat. Commun., 2020, 11, 4173.
[258]	J.-Y. Gu, Z.-F. Cai, D. Wang, L.-J. Wan, ACS Nano, 2016, 10, 8746-8750.
[259]	A. Facchin, T. Kosmala, A. Gennaro, C. Durante, ChemElectroChem, 2020, 7, 1431-1437.
[260]	P. Li, Z. Jin, Y. Qian, Z. Fang, D. Xiao, G. Yu, ACS Energy Lett., 2019, 4, 1793-1802.
[261]	I. Khalakhan, M. Vorokhta, P. Kúš, M. Dopita, M. Václavu, R. Fiala, N. Tsud, T. Skala, V. Matolín, Electrochim. Acta, 2017, 245, 760-769.
[262]	Y. Liang, D. McLaughlin, C. Csoklich, O. Schneider, A. S. Bandarenka, Energy Environ. Sci., 2019, 12, 351-357.
[263]	E. B. Tetteh, L. Banko, O. A. Krysiak, T. Löffler, B. Xiao, S. Varhade, S. Schumacher, A. Savan, C. Andronescu, A. Ludwig, Electrochem. Sci. Adv., 2022, 2, e2100105.
[264]	J. C. Byers, A. G. Güell, P. R. Unwin, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2014, 136, 11252-11255.
[265]	L. Tao, M. Qiao, R. Jin, Y. Li, Z. Xiao, Y. Wang, N. Zhang, C. Xie, Q. He, D. Jiang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2019, 58, 1019-1024.
[266]	J. Ustarroz, I. M. Ornelas, G. Zhang, D. Perry, M. Kang, C. L. Bentley, M. Walker, P. R. Unwin, ACS Catal., 2018, 8, 6775-6790.
[267]	W. Zhang, Y. Hu, L. Ma, G. Zhu, Y. Wang, X. Xue, R. Chen, S. Yang, Z. Jin, Adv. Sci., 2018, 5, 1700275.
[268]	L. Zhang, Z. J. Zhao, J. Gong, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2017, 56, 11326-11353.
[269]	R. Kortlever, J. Shen, K. J. P. Schouten, F. Calle-Vallejo, M. T. Koper, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2015, 6, 4073-4082.
[270]	F. Calle-Vallejo, M. T. Koper, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2013, 52, 7282-7285.
[271]	H. Li, Y. Li, M. T. Koper, F. Calle-Vallejo, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2014, 136, 15694-15701.
[272]	J. H. Montoya, C. Shi, K. Chan, J. K. Nørskov, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2015, 6, 2032-2037.
[273]	K. P. Kuhl, E. R. Cave, D. N. Abram, T. F. Jaramillo, Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 7050-7059.
[274]	A. D. Handoko, F. Wei, B. S. Yeo, Z. W. Seh, Nat. Catal., 2018, 1, 922-934.
[275]	Y. Deng, B. S. Yeo, ACS Catal., 2017, 7, 7873-7889.
[276]	X. Li, X. Yang, J. Zhang, Y. Huang, B. Liu, ACS Catal., 2019, 9, 2521-2531.
[277]	T.-T. Zhuang, Y. Pang, Z.-Q. Liang, Z. Wang, Y. Li, C.-S. Tan, J. Li, C. T. Dinh, P. De Luna, P.-L. Hsieh, Nat. Catal., 2018, 1, 946-951.
[278]	K. D. Yang, W. R. Ko, J. H. Lee, S. J. Kim, H. Lee, M. H. Lee, K. T. Nam, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2017, 56, 796-800.
[279]	W. J. Durand, A. A. Peterson, F. Studt, F. Abild-Pedersen, J. K. Nørskov, Surf. Sci., 2011, 605, 1354-1359.
[280]	X. Wang, Z. F. Cai, Y. Q. Wang, Y. C. Feng, H. J. Yan, D. Wang, L. J. Wan, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2020, 59, 16098-16103.
[281]	G. Liu, M. Lee, S. Kwon, G. Zeng, J. Eichhorn, A. K. Buckley, F. D. Toste, W. A. Goddard III, F. M. Toma, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 2021, 118, e2012649118.
[282]	Z. Jin, P. Li, Y. Meng, Z. Fang, D. Xiao, G. Yu, Nat. Catal., 2021, 4, 615-622.
[283]	A. Wang, J. Li, T. Zhang, Nat. Rev. Chem., 2018, 2, 65-81.
[284]	M. D. Marcinkowski, M. T. Darby, J. Liu, J. M. Wimble, F. R. Lucci, S. Lee, A. Michaelides, M. Flytzani-Stephanopoulos, M. Stamatakis, E. C. H. Sykes, Nat. Chem., 2018, 10, 325-332.
[285]	G. Kyriakou, M. B. Boucher, A. D. Jewell, E. A. Lewis, T. J. Lawton, A. E. Baber, H. L. Tierney, M. Flytzani-Stephanopoulos, E. C. H. Sykes, Science, 2012, 335, 1209-1212.
[286]	W. Zhai, T. Sakthivel, F. Chen, C. Du, H. Yu, Z. Dai, Nanoscale, 2021, 13, 19783-19811.
[287]	Y. Yang, Y. Xiong, R. Zeng, X. Lu, M. Krumov, X. Huang, W. Xu, H. Wang, F. J. DiSalvo, J. D. Brock, ACS Catal., 2021, 11, 1136-1178.
[288]	L. Zhang, Y. Zhang, X. Zhang, Z. Li, G. Shen, M. Ye, C. Fan, H. Fang, J. Hu, Langmuir, 2006, 22, 8109-8113.
[289]	S. Yang, P. Tsai, E. S. Kooij, A. Prosperetti, H. J. Zandvliet, D. Lohse, Langmuir, 2009, 25, 1466-1474.
[290]	Y. Wang, E. Gordon, H. Ren, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2019, 10, 3887-3892.
[291]	Y. Liu, X. Lu, Y. Peng, Q. Chen, Anal. Chem., 2021, 93, 12337-12345.

原位电化学扫描探针显微镜技术在电催化领域的应用进展

Advanced in-situ electrochemical scanning probe microscopies in electrocatalysis

RichHTML

PDF

可视化

摘要/Abstract

引用本文

使用本文

扫码分享

图/表 14

参考文献

相关文章 15

编辑推荐

Metrics

[1]	唐小龙, 李锋, 李方, 江燕斌, 余长林. 单原子催化剂在光催化和电催化合成过氧化氢中的研究进展[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 52(9): 79-98.
[2]	张季, 俞爱民, 孙成华. 非金属掺杂石墨烯异核双原子催化剂氮还原特性研究[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 52(9): 263-270.
[3]	胡金念, 田玲婵, 王海燕, 孟洋, 梁锦霞, 朱纯, 李隽. MXene负载3d金属单原子高效氮还原电催化剂的理论筛选[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 52(9): 252-262.
[4]	洪岩, 王琦, 阚子旺, 张禹烁, 郭晶, 李思琦, 刘松, 李斌. 电化学氮还原氨反应催化剂的最新研究进展[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 52(9): 50-78.
[5]	刘勇, 赵晓丽, 隆昶, 王晓艳, 邓邦为, 李康璐, 孙艳娟, 董帆. 原位构筑动态Cu/Ce(OH)_x界面用于高活性、高选择性和高稳定性硝酸盐还原合成氨[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 52(9): 196-206.
[6]	高晖, 张恭, 程东方, 王永涛, 赵静, 李晓芝, 杜晓伟, 赵志坚, 王拓, 张鹏, 巩金龙. 构建Cu台阶位促进电催化CO₂还原制醇类化学品的研究[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 52(9): 187-195.
[7]	邹心仪, 顾均. 酸性条件下二氧化碳高效电还原策略[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 52(9): 14-31.
[8]	周波, 石建巧, 姜一民, 肖磊, 逯宇轩, 董帆, 陈晨, 王特华, 王双印, 邹雨芹. 强化脱氢动力学实现超低电池电压和大电流密度下抗坏血酸电氧化[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 50(7): 372-380.
[9]	王元男, 王立娜, 张可新, 徐靖尧, 武倩楠, 谢周兵, 安伟, 梁宵, 邹晓新. 钙钛矿氧化物在水裂解反应中的电催化研究[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 50(7): 109-125.
[10]	周纳, 王家志, 张宁, 王志, 王恒国, 黄岗, 鲍迪, 钟海霞, 张新波. 富含缺陷的Cu@CuTCNQ复合材料增强电催化硝酸盐还原成氨[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 50(7): 324-333.
[11]	李轩, 蒋兴星, 孔艳, 孙建桔, 胡琪, 柴晓燕, 杨恒攀, 何传新. GaN/In₂O₃的界面工程用于高效电催化CO₂还原制备甲酸[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 50(7): 314-323.
[12]	Sang Eon Jun, Sungkyun Choi, Jaehyun Kim, Ki Chang Kwon, Sun Hwa Park, Ho Won Jang. 用于电化学能量转换反应的非贵金属单原子催化剂[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 50(7): 195-214.
[13]	牛青, 米林华, 陈玮, 李秋军, 钟升红, 于岩, 李留义. 基于共价有机框架的单位点光(电)催化材料的研究进展[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 50(7): 45-82.
[14]	欧阳玲, 梁杰, 罗永嵩, 郑冬冬, 孙圣钧, 刘倩, Mohamed S. Hamdy, 孙旭平, 应斌武. 电催化合成氨的研究进展[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 50(7): 6-44.
[15]	夏思源, 李奇远, 张仕楠, 许冬, 林秀, 孙露菡, 许景三, 陈接胜, 李国栋, 李新昊. Pd纳米立方体异质结尺寸依赖的电子界面效应对苯酚加氢反应的促进作用[J]. 催化学报, 2023, 49(6): 180-187.