迈向可持续化学: 有机电合成的进展、挑战与机遇

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(25)64927-8

催化学报 ›› 2026, Vol. 82: 1-41.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(25)64927-8

• 综述 • 下一篇

迈向可持续化学: 有机电合成的进展、挑战与机遇

Syeda Maria Hashmi^b, Yilin Wang^b, Nida Rehman^b, 谭心怡^c^,^*(), Javier García-Martínez^d, Ume Aiman^e, Muhammad Sajid^b, 孙振宇^a^,^b^,^*()

^a石河子大学化学化工学院, 化工绿色加工国家重点实验室孵化基地, 新疆石河子 832003, 中国
^b北京化工大学化学工程学院, 有机无机复合材料国家重点实验室, 北京 100029, 中国
^c北京理工大学材料科学与工程学院, 北京环境科学与工程重点实验室, 北京 100081, 中国
^d阿利坎特大学无机化学系, 阿利坎特, 西班牙
^e戈马尔大学化学科学研究所, 德拉伊斯梅尔汗, 巴基斯坦

收稿日期:2025-06-26 接受日期:2025-10-27 出版日期:2026-03-18 发布日期:2026-03-05
通讯作者: * 电子信箱: xinyitan@bit.edu.cn (谭心怡),sunzy@mail.buct.edu.cn (孙振宇).
基金资助:
国家自然科学基金联合基金(U24B20201);国家自然科学基金(22372007);国家自然科学基金(21972010)

Towards sustainable chemistry: Advances, challenges and opportunities in organic electrosynthesis

Syeda Maria Hashmi^b, Yilin Wang^b, Nida Rehman^b, Xinyi Tan^c^,^*(), Javier García-Martínez^d, Ume Aiman^e, Muhammad Sajid^b, Zhenyu Sun^a^,^b^,^*()

^aSchool of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory Incubation Base for Green Processing of Chemical Engineering, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, Xinjiang, China
^bState Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
^cSchool of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing 100081, China
^dDepartment of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Alicante, E-03690, Alicante, Spain
^eInstitute of Chemical Sciences, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan

Received:2025-06-26 Accepted:2025-10-27 Online:2026-03-18 Published:2026-03-05
Contact: * E-mail: xinyitan@bit.edu.cn (X. Tan),sunzy@mail.buct.edu.cn (Z. Sun).
About author:Xinyi Tan (School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology) received her B.S. degree from Jilin University (China) in 2017, and Ph.D. degree from University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in 2021. Since 2022, she has been working in Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering of Beijing Institute of Technology. Her research focus on new materials in electrocatalysis, energy storage and biomass with design of nanostructure of new catalysts and electrodes. She also works on technologies and industrialization for the efficient and green production of high-end chemical materials for chips from biomass. Her recent research mainly includes CO₂ electroreduction, bio-electroreduction of CO₂, high-capacity electrodes for lithium-ion/sodium-ion batteries and biomass conversion. She is Excellent Young Scientists (Overseas) of National Natural Science Foundation of China (2023).
Zhenyu Sun is currently a full professor in the College of Chemical Engineering at Beijing University of Chemical Technology (China). He completed his PhD in the Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2006. He did postdoctoral research in Trinity College Dublin (Ireland) from 2006 to 2008, at Ruhr University, Bochum (Germany) from 2011 to 2014, and University of Oxford from 2014 to 2015. He has obtained a Humboldt Research Fellowship for Experienced Researchers (Germany). His current research focuses on electrocatalytic N₂/CO₂ reduction reactions. He has authored over 190 contributions in international journals.
Supported by:
Joint Funds of the National Natural Science Foundation of China(U24B20201);National Natural Science Foundation of China(22372007);National Natural Science Foundation of China(21972010)

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

在当前资源匮乏、化石燃料过度消耗及环境污染严重的时代, 绿色化学与可再生能源的研究与应用日益受到重视. 在此背景下,有机电合成作为一种以电能驱动的合成策略, 具有条件温和、环境友好的优势, 在化学工业和生物医学领域正获得越来越多的关注. 有机电合成可实现对反应路径的精确调控, 促进C-C, C-O, C-S和C-N等化学键的形成, 从而生成具有附加值的分子. 区别于传统方法对化学计量氧化剂/还原剂的依赖,有机电合成直接以电子为试剂, 从而从源头上消除了对昂贵或高毒性试剂的使用. 有机电合成的另一个显著优势是其高度可调性, 可通过调节施加的电流和电压来调控反应选择性.

本文系统总结讨论了有机电合成领域的最新突破、现存挑战与发展前景. 首先阐释了有机电合成的特点、重要意义及其作用机理. 有机电合成可在温和条件下通过阳极氧化和阴极还原制备传统化学方法难以实现的化学品的合成, 尤其适用于那些具有挑战性的反应过程. 该技术可减少废弃物的产生、降低化学品的消耗且可缩减反应步骤, 因此可作为一种有效的环境友好型合成方法. 有机电合成常涉及官能团互变, 以及通过调控电极电势构建碳-碳键和碳-杂原子键. 随后简要探讨了反应器优化与电催化过程. 进一步从不同偶联反应的角度梳理了电化学合成的各种反应体系, 重点阐释了反应机理、催化剂的设计、合成与催化性能评价方法, 以及提升催化效能的有效策略; 也总结了间接电合成、耦合电化学过程和电化学微反应器等有效提升合成效率的策略. 此外, 电化学流动反应器的设计和应用可实现电合成过程中精确的反应控制与优化; 还分析了原位/工况表征技术、流动电解池系统与机器学习方法及其对于反应机理的认知和推动工艺规模化设计方面的作用. 最后针对该快速发展的领域, 概述了当前面临的突出问题并展望未来发展方向.

综上, 本综述通过系统探讨有机电合成的理论基础, 结合详实的合成案例, 全面展现了有机电合成的研究进展和未来应用潜力. 尽管在催化剂成本、规模化应用与稳定性方面仍存挑战, 电合成技术已然成为绿色化学的前沿领域, 有望为制药、农用化学品及材料合成带来革命性变革. 持续的研究与创新将成为把握这些机遇、迈向更可持续化学未来的关键所在.

关键词: 有机电合成, 可持续化学, 碳-碳键形成, 碳?杂原子键形成, 电化学流动反应器, 可再生能源, 绿色化学

Abstract:

Organic electrosynthesis is particularly appealing for transformations that would otherwise be challenging because of its intrinsic ability to synthesize extremely reactive species under mild conditions via anodic oxidation or cathodic reduction. It has sparked much attention as an effective, environmentally friendly synthesis tool because it generates less waste, uses fewer chemicals, and often requires fewer reaction steps than previous procedures. The processes that underpin organic electrosynthesis include functional group interconversion and formation of C−C and C−heteroatom bonds (such as C−N, C−O, C−S, and C−H) through a controlled electrode potential. Some of the strategies mentioned as aiding the overall process optimization include the use of indirect electrosynthesis, paired electrochemical processes, and electrochemical microreactors. Furthermore, the use of electrochemical flow reactors has resulted in accurate reaction control and optimization. This review discusses strategic developments in organic electrosynthesis, focusing on fundamental concepts, novel approaches, and future directions for sustainable chemical manufacturing.

Key words: Organic electrosynthesis, Sustainable chemistry, C?C bond formation, C?heteroatom bond formation, Electrochemical flow reactors, Renewable energy, Green chemistry

Syeda Maria Hashmi, Yilin Wang, Nida Rehman, 谭心怡, Javier García-Martínez, Ume Aiman, Muhammad Sajid, 孙振宇. 迈向可持续化学: 有机电合成的进展、挑战与机遇[J]. 催化学报, 2026, 82: 1-41.

Syeda Maria Hashmi, Yilin Wang, Nida Rehman, Xinyi Tan, Javier García-Martínez, Ume Aiman, Muhammad Sajid, Zhenyu Sun. Towards sustainable chemistry: Advances, challenges and opportunities in organic electrosynthesis[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2026, 82: 1-41.

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图/表 19

Fig. 1. (a) Most common paths for electro-organic chemicals. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [27]. Copyright 2021, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Hydrogen peroxide is produced by electro-reducing oxygen. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [27]. Copyright 2021, John Wiley and Sons. (c) p-Anisaldehyde's industrial electrosynthesis from p-methoxytoluene. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [7]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Methods for electrochemical methoxymethylation that have recently been published. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [7]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry. (e) An overview of electrochemical decarboxylation and the compounds that result under Hofer-Moest (multiple electron transfer) and Kolbe (single electron transfer) circumstances. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [7]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry. (f) Chemoselective deprotection of an alcohol under electrochemical conditions. Conditions: C(gr)/C(gr), NBu4BF4/NMP-iPrOH (93:7). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [7]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry. (g) Electrochemical hydrogenation of acetophenone. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [26]. Copyright 2013, Elsevier.

Fig. 2. (a) Indirect electrochemical synthesis of benzaldehyde from benzyl alcohol using TEMPO as a mediator. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [7]. Copyright 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Photoelectrochemical TEMPO-mediated HMF oxidation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [31]. Copyright 2015, Springer Nature. (c) TEMPO-mediated photooxidation of HMF at 1.04 V (vs. RHE) in a 0.5 mol L?1 borate buffer solution containing 5 mmol L?1 HMF. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [31]. Copyright 2015, Springer Nature.

Fig. 3. (a,b) Paired electrolysis and their types. Reproduced with permission from Refs. [36]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. (c) Schematic illustration of RR-enabled ModES for the paired oxidation of 4-t-butyltoluene in methanol and reduction of oxygen to H2O2 in water compared with conventional electrolysis processes. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [34]. Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 4. (a) Diagrammatic electrolysis within an undivided cell. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [39]. Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH. (b) Graphics of electrolysis in a divided cell. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [39]. Copyright 2020, from Wiley-VCH. (c) Diagrammatic representation of working principle of a quasi-divided cell design. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [39]. Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH. (d) BDD electrodes diagram. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [57]. Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society. (e) Top view of uncoated RVC samples' 3D-rendered CT scans, displaying different ppi grades. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [58]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.

Table 1 Benefits and drawbacks of various electrode compositions.

Material	Advantage	Disadvantage	Ref.
Mercury (cathode)	renewable surface, allowing operation at extremely negative potentials without unwanted side reactions	rarely used, extremely poisonous (may produce organomercurial chemicals)	[59]
Lead (cathode)	suitable for strong organic reductions	organic substances can simply passivate it (cleaning is required during the electrolysis process).	[60]
Silver (plated) (cathode)	excellent for the reduction of organic halides	high cost	[61]
Nickel (anode)	forming the strongly oxidizing agent NiOOH in basic conditions	high cost	[62]
Zinc, iron, magnesium, and aluminium, (sacrificial anodes)	removing the need for a divided cell, producing Lewis acids in situ, and requiring a significant surplus of supporting electrolyte	electrode can corrode during electrolysis	[63]
Carbon (cathode and anode)	high versatility, low cost, many different types (pyrolytic carbon, glassy carbon, graphite, etc.), large H₂ evolution overpotential (as a cathode enables strong reductions), and ease of chemical modification	can be fragile, hard to clean	[64]
Platinum (cathode and anode)	easy to clean, highly adaptable, high stability	enabling quick evolution of hydrogen, a poor choice for strong reductions, high cost	[65]

Fig. 5. (a) Modified electrode W2C/N3.0C for alkoxylation of benzylic C-H bonds. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [120]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (b) Representation of pyrene-TEMPO immobilized on the surface of carbon nanotubes. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [120]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (c) Proposed mechanism for CNT/MOL-TEMPO modified electrode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [120]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (d) Representation of CNT/MOL-TEMPO-CO2 and CNT/MOL-TEMPO-OPO3H2. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [121]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (e) A modified RuO2-SnO2-TiO2 electrode designed for the selective electrocatalytic CAL hydrogenation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [112]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. (f) The deposition of nanoparticles on a carbon support, their activation as an electrochemical synthesis catalyst, and the distribution of reaction products after a 12-hour reaction. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [119]. Copyright 2020, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 6. (a) Regioselective halogenation of arenes through dual Pd catalysis and electrochemical oxidation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [141]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) CO2 and H2O electrocatalytically react to generate C-H bonds. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [151]. Copyright 2024, OAE Publishing Inc. (c) The proposed reaction mechanism for the electrocatalyzed reduction of CO2 on nickel phosphides. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [152]. Copyright 2018, RSC Publishing. (d) FE for CO2RR as a function of potential and catalyst composition. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [152]. Copyright 2018, RSC Publishing.

Fig. 8. (a) Enantioselective nickel-catalyzed electrochemical cross-coupling. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [93]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (b) Ni-catalyzed C(sp2)?C(sp3) cross-electrophile coupling. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [158]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. (c) Ni-catalyzed Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi coupling. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [159]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. (d) Synthesis of acetic acid by reaction of methanol with CO2 and H2. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [162]. Copyright 2016, Springer.

Fig. 9. (a) Electrochemical aziridination of olefins. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [141]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Synthesis of (aza) indoles using ferrocene as mediator. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [141]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Synthesis of 1,4-benzoxazin-3-ones via anodic C-H amination. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [141]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Electrocatalytic processes involving C-N interaction. (I) CO2 and NH3/N2 simultaneously reduced to formamide/acetamide/urea. (II) CO2 and NO3-/NO2- simultaneously. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [151]. Copyright 2024, OAE Publishing Inc.

Fig. 10. (a) Electrocatalytic processes involving C-O interaction. (I) Dimethyl carbonate produced electrochemically from CO2 without changing the redox state. (II) Cyclic carbonates produced electrochemically from CO2 and diols. (III) Cyclic carbonates produced electrochemically by CO2 and epoxides. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [151]. Copyright 2024, OAE Publishing Inc. (b) Schematic (above) of the suggested reaction mechanism for the synthesis of dimethyl carbonate from CO2 and a redox-neutral electrochemical apparatus for this process. An electrochemical synthetic pathway (below) for the synthesis of propylene carbonate from CO2 and propylene oxide. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [151]. Copyright 2024, OAE Publishing Inc.

Fig. 11. (a) Difunctionalization of alkenes by electrochemical formation of both C-S and C-O/N bonds. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [202]. Copyright 2024, Georg Thieme Verlag KG. (b) Difunctionalization of isocyanides. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [202]. Copyright 2024, Georg Thieme Verlag KG. (c) Direct anodic cross-dehydrogenative coupling of (hetero) arenes and thiophenols. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [141]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Table 2 Summary of different organic electrosynthetic reactions.

Bond type	Example	Advantage	Challenge	Ref.
C-H activation & functionalization	Pd-catalyzed C-H iodination followed by Suzuki coupling Pd-mediated electrooxidative homocoupling of alkynes Sanford group’s Pd-catalyzed electroacetoxylation Co-catalyzed C-H amination/oxygenation/annulation Ni-catalyzed C-H amination & alkoxylation Fe-catalyzed C-H arylation with DCIB or direct electro-oxidation	atom-efficient, avoiding prefunctionalization, enabling site-selective functionalization	selectivity control (stereo/regio), competing side reactions, mechanistic complexity	[141] [143] [144] [145-148] [150]
C-C bond formation	Kolbe electrolysis cascade (Schäfer) electro-Ni catalyzed enantioselective reductive cross-coupling electrochemical oxidative cross-dehydrogenative coupling (CDC) electrochemical carbazole synthesis Cross-electrophile couplings with arylsulfonium salts (procter, Ritter, Yorimitsu) electroreductive Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi (Ni-catalyzed) enantioselective electroreductive benzyl/alkenyl coupling electro-carboxylation of pyridines with CO₂	high atom economy, avoiding stoichiometric oxidants, sustainable & scalable	requiring careful catalyst design, product purification, selectivity limits	[132] [141] [157] [158] [159] [160] [161]
C-N bond formation	electro-aziridination, mediator-based radical cyclization to indoles/imidazo-heterocycles (Xu) BDD-anode mediated diamination (Waldvogel) anodic C-H amination to benzoxazinones Electrochemical amination with N-tosyl sulfilimine CO₂/N₂ or CO₂/NO₃^-/NO₂^- co-reduction to urea, amides, amines	direct, green routes to urea, amines, amides; reduing reliance on Haber-Bosch	mechanistic complexity, limited selectivity, need for dual-site catalysts	[167] [168-175]
C-O bond formation	electrochemical aryl-O coupling (Pd, Ni, Cu catalysis) Aryl-alkyl ether synthesis, electro-driven carbonyl, ether, ester formation	higher yields, simpler work-up, sustainability	competing β-hydride elimination, limited substrate scope	[176-178] [179-186]
C-S bond formation	electrochemical difunctionalization of alkenes (oxysulfenylation, aminosulfenylation)	expanding scope of sulfur-functionalized compounds	still less developed than C-N or C-O routes	[198]
CO₂ reduction (C-H bond formation)	Ni₂P and related phosphides for selective multi-carbon CO₂RR	producing C₁-C₄products, high FE, low overpotential	requiring precise catalyst design, scale-up challenges	[152]

Table 2 Summary of different organic electrosynthetic reactions.

Bond type	Example	Advantage	Challenge	Ref.
C-H activation & functionalization	Pd-catalyzed C-H iodination followed by Suzuki coupling Pd-mediated electrooxidative homocoupling of alkynes Sanford group’s Pd-catalyzed electroacetoxylation Co-catalyzed C-H amination/oxygenation/annulation Ni-catalyzed C-H amination & alkoxylation Fe-catalyzed C-H arylation with DCIB or direct electro-oxidation	atom-efficient, avoiding prefunctionalization, enabling site-selective functionalization	selectivity control (stereo/regio), competing side reactions, mechanistic complexity	[141] [143] [144] [145-148] [150]
C-C bond formation	Kolbe electrolysis cascade (Schäfer) electro-Ni catalyzed enantioselective reductive cross-coupling electrochemical oxidative cross-dehydrogenative coupling (CDC) electrochemical carbazole synthesis Cross-electrophile couplings with arylsulfonium salts (procter, Ritter, Yorimitsu) electroreductive Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi (Ni-catalyzed) enantioselective electroreductive benzyl/alkenyl coupling electro-carboxylation of pyridines with CO₂	high atom economy, avoiding stoichiometric oxidants, sustainable & scalable	requiring careful catalyst design, product purification, selectivity limits	[132] [141] [157] [158] [159] [160] [161]
C-N bond formation	electro-aziridination, mediator-based radical cyclization to indoles/imidazo-heterocycles (Xu) BDD-anode mediated diamination (Waldvogel) anodic C-H amination to benzoxazinones Electrochemical amination with N-tosyl sulfilimine CO₂/N₂ or CO₂/NO₃^-/NO₂^- co-reduction to urea, amides, amines	direct, green routes to urea, amines, amides; reduing reliance on Haber-Bosch	mechanistic complexity, limited selectivity, need for dual-site catalysts	[167] [168-175]
C-O bond formation	electrochemical aryl-O coupling (Pd, Ni, Cu catalysis) Aryl-alkyl ether synthesis, electro-driven carbonyl, ether, ester formation	higher yields, simpler work-up, sustainability	competing β-hydride elimination, limited substrate scope	[176-178] [179-186]
C-S bond formation	electrochemical difunctionalization of alkenes (oxysulfenylation, aminosulfenylation)	expanding scope of sulfur-functionalized compounds	still less developed than C-N or C-O routes	[198]
CO₂ reduction (C-H bond formation)	Ni₂P and related phosphides for selective multi-carbon CO₂RR	producing C₁-C₄products, high FE, low overpotential	requiring precise catalyst design, scale-up challenges	[152]

Table 3 Summary of the state-of-the-art electrocatalysts for C?H, C?C, C?N, and C?O.

Bond type	Electrocatalyst	Reaction/Transformation	Advantage	Limitation	Ref.
C-H activation	Pd + electrooxidation	C-H iodination → Suzuki coupling	high site-selectivity, dual role (activation + coupling)	expensive, requiring halide source, risk of overoxidation	[141] [143]
	Pd catalyst	electrochemical acetoxylation (C(sp²)-H, C(sp³)-H)	direct acetoxylation under mild electrochemical conditions	costly ligands, overoxidation risk	[144]
	Co	C-H amination, oxygenation, annulation	earth-abundant, low-cost, enabling multiple C-H transformations	requiring high potentials, catalyst stability issues	[145-148]
	Ni	C-H amination and alkoxylation	low-cost, sustainable, proof-of-concept for amides and alcohols	early-stage, limited substrate scope so far	[149]
	Fe	C-H arylation	greener alternative, superior efficiency vs. DCIB oxidation	sensitive to electrode effects, optimization needed	[150]
CO₂ reduction (C-H generation)	Ni₂P & related phosphides	CO₂ reduction → C-H bond formation (C₁-C₄ products)	producing multi-carbon products (C₁-C₄) at near-thermoneutral potential; high faradaic efficiency	requiring precise catalyst design, scale-up challenges	[152]
C-C bond	Ni catalyst + electroreduction	Reductive cross-coupling (aziridines + alkenyl bromides)	enantioselective, inexpensive metal	chiral ligands required, substrate-dependent	[155]
	Ni catalyst	Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi coupling	first enantioselective electroreductive variant	halide-sensitive, ligand dependence	[157,158]
	Fe, Ni, Ru, Rh catalysts	C₁ → C₂+ (from CO₂/CH₄/MeOH)	broadening carbonylation pathways	high energy input, low selectivity	[160,161]
C-N bond	Cu NPs	CO + NH₃ → acetamide	inexpensive NP catalyst, decent selectivity	NP aggregation, instability	[172]
	Cu catalyst	CO₂ + NH₃ → formamide	high FE, stabilizing intermediates	poor stability, limited scale	[172]
	Cu catalysts	CO₂ + NO₃^-/NO₂^- → amines	access to multiple amines via intermediate pairing	low yield, multi-step intermediates	[173]
C-O bond	Pd (BrettPhos, RockPhos, etc.)	Aryl ether synthesis	ligand control enables selectivity and efficiency	costly ligands, sensitive to air/moisture	[180-184]
	Ni catalysts	C-O ether coupling	cheap Pd alternative, functional group tolerance	lower activity, catalyst deactivation	[185]
	Cu catalysts + neutral ligands	Aryl-alkyl ethers	reducing alcohol excess, pharma relevance	ligand-dependent, recyclability issues	[185]
	Mn(II) catalysts	Indole dearomatization with alcohols/NHTosylates (via Langlois’ reagent)	enabling electrochemical C-O cyclization; access to indolines	requiring specific nucleophiles; substrate limitations	[187]

Table 3 Summary of the state-of-the-art electrocatalysts for C?H, C?C, C?N, and C?O.

Bond type	Electrocatalyst	Reaction/Transformation	Advantage	Limitation	Ref.
C-H activation	Pd + electrooxidation	C-H iodination → Suzuki coupling	high site-selectivity, dual role (activation + coupling)	expensive, requiring halide source, risk of overoxidation	[141] [143]
	Pd catalyst	electrochemical acetoxylation (C(sp²)-H, C(sp³)-H)	direct acetoxylation under mild electrochemical conditions	costly ligands, overoxidation risk	[144]
	Co	C-H amination, oxygenation, annulation	earth-abundant, low-cost, enabling multiple C-H transformations	requiring high potentials, catalyst stability issues	[145-148]
	Ni	C-H amination and alkoxylation	low-cost, sustainable, proof-of-concept for amides and alcohols	early-stage, limited substrate scope so far	[149]
	Fe	C-H arylation	greener alternative, superior efficiency vs. DCIB oxidation	sensitive to electrode effects, optimization needed	[150]
CO₂ reduction (C-H generation)	Ni₂P & related phosphides	CO₂ reduction → C-H bond formation (C₁-C₄ products)	producing multi-carbon products (C₁-C₄) at near-thermoneutral potential; high faradaic efficiency	requiring precise catalyst design, scale-up challenges	[152]
C-C bond	Ni catalyst + electroreduction	Reductive cross-coupling (aziridines + alkenyl bromides)	enantioselective, inexpensive metal	chiral ligands required, substrate-dependent	[155]
	Ni catalyst	Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi coupling	first enantioselective electroreductive variant	halide-sensitive, ligand dependence	[157,158]
	Fe, Ni, Ru, Rh catalysts	C₁ → C₂+ (from CO₂/CH₄/MeOH)	broadening carbonylation pathways	high energy input, low selectivity	[160,161]
C-N bond	Cu NPs	CO + NH₃ → acetamide	inexpensive NP catalyst, decent selectivity	NP aggregation, instability	[172]
	Cu catalyst	CO₂ + NH₃ → formamide	high FE, stabilizing intermediates	poor stability, limited scale	[172]
	Cu catalysts	CO₂ + NO₃^-/NO₂^- → amines	access to multiple amines via intermediate pairing	low yield, multi-step intermediates	[173]
C-O bond	Pd (BrettPhos, RockPhos, etc.)	Aryl ether synthesis	ligand control enables selectivity and efficiency	costly ligands, sensitive to air/moisture	[180-184]
	Ni catalysts	C-O ether coupling	cheap Pd alternative, functional group tolerance	lower activity, catalyst deactivation	[185]
	Cu catalysts + neutral ligands	Aryl-alkyl ethers	reducing alcohol excess, pharma relevance	ligand-dependent, recyclability issues	[185]
	Mn(II) catalysts	Indole dearomatization with alcohols/NHTosylates (via Langlois’ reagent)	enabling electrochemical C-O cyclization; access to indolines	requiring specific nucleophiles; substrate limitations	[187]

Fig. 14. An overview of the oxidative amination processes that Ti imido (Ti≡NR) complexes catalyze or mediate. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [212]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 15. (a) Known de-aromatization techniques: enzymatic arene dihydroxylation, arene-olefin meta-cycloaddition, and alkylative birch reduction. (b) Planar aromatic compounds undergoing de-aromatization to become saturated, structurally complicated frameworks. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [213]. Copyright 2021, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 16. (a) The schematic diagram shows the tuning of the nitrate reduction reaction for selective NH2OH production on the molecularly dispersed electro catalysts (MDEs) of metal phthalocyanine (MPc) supported on CNTs. (b) Electrocatalytic performance of ZnPc MDE for NO3-RR. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [214]. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature.

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迈向可持续化学: 有机电合成的进展、挑战与机遇

Towards sustainable chemistry: Advances, challenges and opportunities in organic electrosynthesis

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