催化学报 ›› 2026, Vol. 83: 54-95.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(26)64969-8
R. Kavithaa, C. Manjunathab, S. Girish Kumarc,*(
)
收稿日期:2025-09-30
接受日期:2025-11-20
出版日期:2026-04-18
发布日期:2026-03-04
通讯作者:
* 电子信箱: girichem@yahoo.co.in (S. Kumar).
R. Kavithaa, C. Manjunathab, S. Girish Kumarc,*()
Received:2025-09-30
Accepted:2025-11-20
Online:2026-04-18
Published:2026-03-04
Contact:
* E-mail: About author:Shivashankar Girish Kumar, a native of Karnataka, (Kolar district, Malur taluk), obtained his Ph.D from Department of Chemistry, Bangalore University (2012) and completed Post-Doctoral Fellow studies from Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Science (2015). His research interests cover the area of heterojunctions photocatalysts, nanomaterials synthesis, phase transition in TiO2 and Fenton’s process for wastewater treatment. He has published 75 research articles that has cited ~9000 times till date. He is serving as an Associate Editor for the journal ‘Chemical Papers’ published by the Springer Nature. He has reviewed 2400 plus research articles from various international journals.
摘要：
异质结是由具有不同带隙和带边电势的半导体组成, 可以通过利用太阳光中更宽谱段的光子, 促进光生载流子的分离与迁移. 在此背景下, 由氧化型与还原型光催化剂构成的S型异质结(SSH)因其可高效利用高能光生载流子进行定向氧化还原反应而备受关注. 该类反应不仅涵盖污染物降解与燃料合成, 还可拓展至多反应协同的耦合光催化体系. ZnO作为一种具有中间带边位置的半导体, 既可作氧化型光催化剂, 也可作还原型光催化剂, 是构建S型异质结的理想材料. 本文围绕ZnO基S型异质结, 系统阐述其设计原则、制备方法(涵盖结晶过程、形貌调控与异质结构建机制), 并综述如何通过共催化剂修饰、掺杂、空位工程及双S型结构构建等策略进一步提升其性能与载流子寿命. 同时, 文章详细介绍了该类材料在光催化析氢、过氧化氢合成、二氧化碳还原、污染物降解及耦合催化体系中的应用. 最后, 本文指出该领域目前面临的挑战, 展望其在能源与环境相关领域的应用前景.
R. Kavitha, C. Manjunatha, S. Girish Kumar. 基于氧化锌的S型异质结: 设计原理、制备方法及光催化活性[J]. 催化学报, 2026, 83: 54-95.
R. Kavitha, C. Manjunatha, S. Girish Kumar. ZnO-based S-scheme heterojunction: Design principles, preparation methods and photocatalytic activity[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2026, 83: 54-95.
Fig. 1. Different types of heterojunctions formed between the two semiconductors and related charge carrier transfer pathways. Note: SC = semiconductor.
Fig. 2. ZSSH with various functional semiconductors and their photocatalytic applications. (Note: (1) band gap and band edge potentials of mentioned materials are taken from the cited references; (2) band gap and band edge potentials of ZnO varies depending on the preparation methods. Thus, the corresponding range of values are provided in this figure. Readers are suggested to follow the references for more clarification).
Fig. 3. Various types of ZSSH depending on the band edge potentials of integrated components: Combination of ZnO (OP) and RP (a), OP with ZnO (RP) (b), vacancy engineered/doped ZnO (OP) with RP (c), ZnO (OP) with vacancy engineered/doped RP (d), vacancy engineered/doped ZnO (OP) with defect-rich/doped RP (e), ZnO (OP) with co-catalyst modified RP (f), RP with co-catalyst modified ZnO (OP) (g), dual S-scheme heterojunction with ZnO (OP) (h), dual S-scheme heterojunction with ZnO (RP) (i), and dual S-scheme heterojunction with ZnO as intermediate layer (j). Note: SC = semiconductor.
| ZSSH (OP/RP) | Reaction conditions adopted for heterostructure formation | Ref. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO/CuO | CuO was deposited on the mesoporous ZnO through sol-gel hydrolysis method (400 °C, 3 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CuBi2O4 | heterogeneous nucleation of flower-like ZnO on the surface of spherical bundles-like CuBi2O4 was achieved through the hydrothermal treatment (180 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CuInS2 | preformed semiconductors were dispersed in hexane and dried in vacuum conditions | [ | ||
| ZnO/Ag2O | simultaneous crystallization was achieved under moderate heating conditions assisted with SDS (80 °C, 2.5 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnBi2O4 | ZnBi2O4-NPs were grown on the surface of ZnO-NRs through the hydrothermal conditions (180 °C, 20 h) | [ | ||
| BiOBr/ZnO | ZnO and BiOBr can be simultaneously nucleated under the hydrothermal conditions in EG medium (160 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/LaFeO3 | mesoporous ZnO was dispersed with La-precursors in ethanol medium and annealed (500 °C, 3 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/MnS | MnS were grown on the surface of ZnO through the hydrothermal method (180 °C, 24 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/TpPa-Cl | preformed semiconductors were dispersed in aqueous suspension at pH 7 under heating conditions (60 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/PANI | PANI was grown on the surface of ZnO using (NH4)2S2O8 under acidic conditions | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN | ZnO-NRs was grown on the surface of GCN-NSs under the hydrothermal conditions (160 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CsPbBr3 | preformed semiconductors were dispersed in hexane and stirred for 4 h | [ | ||
| ZnO/COF (TAPT-DMTP) | ZnO, TAPT and DMTP were heated under inert atmosphere (120 °C, 72 h) | [ | ||
| Nb2C/Nb2O5/ZnO | Nb2C/Nb2O5 (2D/1D) and ZnO-QDs were conjugated through electrostatic self-assembly approach | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS | ZnO was sonicated with Na2S to form the heterostructure | [ | ||
| ZnO/CdS | preformed materials were self-assembled under the influence of sonication process | [ | ||
| ZnO/graphene-QDs | preformed materials were subjected to hydrothermal treatment (180 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/KCl-GCN | preformed ZnO-NRs and KCl-modified GCN-NSs were grounded well and subjected to annealing (450 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/g-C3N5 | pre-fromed semiconductors were subjected to hydrothermal treatment (140 °C, 10 h) | [ | ||
| WO3/GCN/ZnO | preformed WO3/ZnO were dispersed in methanol suspension of GCN and dried | [ | ||
| ZnO/In2S3 | preformed semiconductors were subjected to combined hydrothermal treatment (180 °C, 3 h) and calcination (600 °C, 4 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CdS | preformed semiconductors were subjected to ball-milling (3 h) process in ethanol suspension | [ | ||
| N-ZnO/GCN | N-ZnO and ZnO were ball milled at 400 rpm (6 h) | [ | ||
| Bi3TaO7/ZnO | ZnO were grown in the presence of Bi3TaO7 under hydrothermal conditions (180 °C, 24 h) | [ | ||
| N-ZnO/GCN | N-ZnO were grown on the surface of GCN through the hydrothermal method (150 °C, 8 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/S-GCN | ZnO were grown on the surface of S-GCN through sol-gel hydrolysis method (550 °C, 1 h) | [ | ||
| W18O49/ZnO | ZnO were grown on the surface of W18O49 under solvothermal conditions (180 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| GCN/ZnO | ZnO-NRs were grown on the surface of GCN under hydrothermal conditions with hydrazine (90 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| WO3/ZnO | ZnO were heterogeneously grown on the WO3-sheets using hydrothermal conditions (120 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| Cu-ZnO/GCN | Cu-ZnO were grown on GCN surface under the influence of microwave assisted hydrothermal treatment | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN-QDs | ZnO-NRs were grown in the presence of GCN-QDs under the combined hydrothermal (90 °C, 15 h); calcination approach (300 °C, 0.5 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/PBD | ZnO were grown on the polymer sheets through hydrothermal condition (100 °C, 10 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/In2O3 | In2O3-hollow NTs were mixed with zinc nitrate and annealed (400 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| SrTiO3/ZnO | preformed SrTiO3 was annealed with ZIF-8 to form the heterostructure (350 °C, 2 h and 400 °C, 1 h) | [ | ||
| N-ZnO/GCN | preformed ZIF-L and GCN were dispersed in aqueous medium, which was followed by drying and annealing (400 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS | direct annealing of ZnS at in the temperature range of 450‒550 °C (2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS | ZnS was partially converted to ZnO upon annealing at 500 °C | [ | ||
| ZnO/In2S3 | In2S3 flower-like morphology was grown in the presence of ZnO-NPs under the hydrothermal conditions (180 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CoTe | CoTe were crystallized in the presence of ZnO under hydrothermal conditions (180 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ZnIn2S4 were grown on the surface of ZnO to form 2D/2D heterostructure under hydrothermal conditions (150 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CuMn2O4 | CuMn2O4 was nucleated on the surface of mesoporous ZnO through sol-gel hydrolysis step (600 °C, 3 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS | ZnS-NPs were grown on the surface of ZnO-NRs through sulfidation process under heating conditions (60 °C, 24 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS | ZnS were grown on the surface of ZnO-HSs through ion-exchange reaction with Na2S (60 °C, 24 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/NH2-MIL-88B | Fe-based MOFs were crystallized under the hydrothermal conditions with ZnO-NPs (130 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ZnIn2S4 were grown on porous black-ZnO surface under solvothermal conditions (160 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ZnIn2S4 were grown on the surface of ZnO-NFs under heating conditions (80 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CdS | CdS-QDs were grown on the surface of ZnO-NSs through photo-deposition approach (300 W Xe lamp, 1.5 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CdS | CdS-QDs were grown on the surface of ZnO-NSs through chemical-bath deposition (60 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS/In2S3 | ZnS and In2S3-NPs were grown on the surface of flower-like ZnO through hydrothermal method (160 °C, 8 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ZnIn2S4-NSs were grown in the presence of ZnO-NPs under solvothermal conditions in EG medium (120 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| N-ZnO/C/ Bi2MoO6 | Bi2MoO6-NSs were nucleated on the surface of rhombic dodecahedra structure of N-ZnO/C under solvothermal conditions (160 °C, 24 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/MgIn2S4 | MgIn2S4 were grown on the surface of ZnO through hydrothermal method (180 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CuO | CuO was deposited on ZnO through DC magnetron sputtering technique | [ | ||
| V2O5/WO3/ZnO | simultaneous crystallization was evidenced using co-precipitation approach (700 °C, 3 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/Zn3(PO4)2 | Co-precipitation technique with CTAB surfactant resulted in the simultaneous formation of both the components (400 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN | ZIF-8 and urea were mixed and annealed (500 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN | mixture containing the precursors of ZnO and GCN along with egg-white template was annealed (600 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN | C-ZIF-8 and urea were mixed and annealed (550 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| N-ZnO/GCN | Zinc-nitrate and melamine were annealed in two successive stages (500 °C, 2 h; 520 °C 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN | Zinc-coordination polymer spheres and melamine were mixed well and annealed (550 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/SrTiO3 | simultaneous crystallization of ZnO and SrTiO3 was achieved using the hydrothermal treatment (180 °C, 10 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/NiO | simultaneous crystallization of ZnO and NiO was achieved using combined solvothermal treatment (180 °C, 12 h) and annealing (400 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/Fe2O3 | basil seed hydrogels were utilized in the simultaneous crystallization of ZnO and Fe2O3 under microwave assisted (10 min, 540 W) hydrothermal treatment (150 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/Nd(OH)3 /N-CQDs | Nd(OH)3-NRs and ZnO-NSs were simultaneously crystallized in the presence of N-CQDs under hydrothermal conditions (150 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnMn2O4 | precursors of NFs were annealed to form the heterojunction (550 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| TiO2/ZnO | simultaneous formation of TiO2 and ZnO was formed using combined hydrothermal treatment (150 °C, 12 h) and annealing (500 °C, 4 h) | [ | ||
| Ag-WO3/ZnO | spray pyrolysis approach was adopted to simultaneously crystallize the materials on the ceramic substrate surface (600 °C, 5 h) | [ | ||
Table 1 Preparation of ZSSH under different reaction conditions.
| ZSSH (OP/RP) | Reaction conditions adopted for heterostructure formation | Ref. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO/CuO | CuO was deposited on the mesoporous ZnO through sol-gel hydrolysis method (400 °C, 3 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CuBi2O4 | heterogeneous nucleation of flower-like ZnO on the surface of spherical bundles-like CuBi2O4 was achieved through the hydrothermal treatment (180 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CuInS2 | preformed semiconductors were dispersed in hexane and dried in vacuum conditions | [ | ||
| ZnO/Ag2O | simultaneous crystallization was achieved under moderate heating conditions assisted with SDS (80 °C, 2.5 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnBi2O4 | ZnBi2O4-NPs were grown on the surface of ZnO-NRs through the hydrothermal conditions (180 °C, 20 h) | [ | ||
| BiOBr/ZnO | ZnO and BiOBr can be simultaneously nucleated under the hydrothermal conditions in EG medium (160 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/LaFeO3 | mesoporous ZnO was dispersed with La-precursors in ethanol medium and annealed (500 °C, 3 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/MnS | MnS were grown on the surface of ZnO through the hydrothermal method (180 °C, 24 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/TpPa-Cl | preformed semiconductors were dispersed in aqueous suspension at pH 7 under heating conditions (60 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/PANI | PANI was grown on the surface of ZnO using (NH4)2S2O8 under acidic conditions | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN | ZnO-NRs was grown on the surface of GCN-NSs under the hydrothermal conditions (160 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CsPbBr3 | preformed semiconductors were dispersed in hexane and stirred for 4 h | [ | ||
| ZnO/COF (TAPT-DMTP) | ZnO, TAPT and DMTP were heated under inert atmosphere (120 °C, 72 h) | [ | ||
| Nb2C/Nb2O5/ZnO | Nb2C/Nb2O5 (2D/1D) and ZnO-QDs were conjugated through electrostatic self-assembly approach | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS | ZnO was sonicated with Na2S to form the heterostructure | [ | ||
| ZnO/CdS | preformed materials were self-assembled under the influence of sonication process | [ | ||
| ZnO/graphene-QDs | preformed materials were subjected to hydrothermal treatment (180 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/KCl-GCN | preformed ZnO-NRs and KCl-modified GCN-NSs were grounded well and subjected to annealing (450 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/g-C3N5 | pre-fromed semiconductors were subjected to hydrothermal treatment (140 °C, 10 h) | [ | ||
| WO3/GCN/ZnO | preformed WO3/ZnO were dispersed in methanol suspension of GCN and dried | [ | ||
| ZnO/In2S3 | preformed semiconductors were subjected to combined hydrothermal treatment (180 °C, 3 h) and calcination (600 °C, 4 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CdS | preformed semiconductors were subjected to ball-milling (3 h) process in ethanol suspension | [ | ||
| N-ZnO/GCN | N-ZnO and ZnO were ball milled at 400 rpm (6 h) | [ | ||
| Bi3TaO7/ZnO | ZnO were grown in the presence of Bi3TaO7 under hydrothermal conditions (180 °C, 24 h) | [ | ||
| N-ZnO/GCN | N-ZnO were grown on the surface of GCN through the hydrothermal method (150 °C, 8 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/S-GCN | ZnO were grown on the surface of S-GCN through sol-gel hydrolysis method (550 °C, 1 h) | [ | ||
| W18O49/ZnO | ZnO were grown on the surface of W18O49 under solvothermal conditions (180 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| GCN/ZnO | ZnO-NRs were grown on the surface of GCN under hydrothermal conditions with hydrazine (90 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| WO3/ZnO | ZnO were heterogeneously grown on the WO3-sheets using hydrothermal conditions (120 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| Cu-ZnO/GCN | Cu-ZnO were grown on GCN surface under the influence of microwave assisted hydrothermal treatment | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN-QDs | ZnO-NRs were grown in the presence of GCN-QDs under the combined hydrothermal (90 °C, 15 h); calcination approach (300 °C, 0.5 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/PBD | ZnO were grown on the polymer sheets through hydrothermal condition (100 °C, 10 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/In2O3 | In2O3-hollow NTs were mixed with zinc nitrate and annealed (400 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| SrTiO3/ZnO | preformed SrTiO3 was annealed with ZIF-8 to form the heterostructure (350 °C, 2 h and 400 °C, 1 h) | [ | ||
| N-ZnO/GCN | preformed ZIF-L and GCN were dispersed in aqueous medium, which was followed by drying and annealing (400 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS | direct annealing of ZnS at in the temperature range of 450‒550 °C (2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS | ZnS was partially converted to ZnO upon annealing at 500 °C | [ | ||
| ZnO/In2S3 | In2S3 flower-like morphology was grown in the presence of ZnO-NPs under the hydrothermal conditions (180 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CoTe | CoTe were crystallized in the presence of ZnO under hydrothermal conditions (180 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ZnIn2S4 were grown on the surface of ZnO to form 2D/2D heterostructure under hydrothermal conditions (150 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CuMn2O4 | CuMn2O4 was nucleated on the surface of mesoporous ZnO through sol-gel hydrolysis step (600 °C, 3 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS | ZnS-NPs were grown on the surface of ZnO-NRs through sulfidation process under heating conditions (60 °C, 24 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS | ZnS were grown on the surface of ZnO-HSs through ion-exchange reaction with Na2S (60 °C, 24 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/NH2-MIL-88B | Fe-based MOFs were crystallized under the hydrothermal conditions with ZnO-NPs (130 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ZnIn2S4 were grown on porous black-ZnO surface under solvothermal conditions (160 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ZnIn2S4 were grown on the surface of ZnO-NFs under heating conditions (80 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CdS | CdS-QDs were grown on the surface of ZnO-NSs through photo-deposition approach (300 W Xe lamp, 1.5 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CdS | CdS-QDs were grown on the surface of ZnO-NSs through chemical-bath deposition (60 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnS/In2S3 | ZnS and In2S3-NPs were grown on the surface of flower-like ZnO through hydrothermal method (160 °C, 8 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ZnIn2S4-NSs were grown in the presence of ZnO-NPs under solvothermal conditions in EG medium (120 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| N-ZnO/C/ Bi2MoO6 | Bi2MoO6-NSs were nucleated on the surface of rhombic dodecahedra structure of N-ZnO/C under solvothermal conditions (160 °C, 24 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/MgIn2S4 | MgIn2S4 were grown on the surface of ZnO through hydrothermal method (180 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/CuO | CuO was deposited on ZnO through DC magnetron sputtering technique | [ | ||
| V2O5/WO3/ZnO | simultaneous crystallization was evidenced using co-precipitation approach (700 °C, 3 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/Zn3(PO4)2 | Co-precipitation technique with CTAB surfactant resulted in the simultaneous formation of both the components (400 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN | ZIF-8 and urea were mixed and annealed (500 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN | mixture containing the precursors of ZnO and GCN along with egg-white template was annealed (600 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN | C-ZIF-8 and urea were mixed and annealed (550 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| N-ZnO/GCN | Zinc-nitrate and melamine were annealed in two successive stages (500 °C, 2 h; 520 °C 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/GCN | Zinc-coordination polymer spheres and melamine were mixed well and annealed (550 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/SrTiO3 | simultaneous crystallization of ZnO and SrTiO3 was achieved using the hydrothermal treatment (180 °C, 10 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/NiO | simultaneous crystallization of ZnO and NiO was achieved using combined solvothermal treatment (180 °C, 12 h) and annealing (400 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/Fe2O3 | basil seed hydrogels were utilized in the simultaneous crystallization of ZnO and Fe2O3 under microwave assisted (10 min, 540 W) hydrothermal treatment (150 °C, 12 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/Nd(OH)3 /N-CQDs | Nd(OH)3-NRs and ZnO-NSs were simultaneously crystallized in the presence of N-CQDs under hydrothermal conditions (150 °C, 6 h) | [ | ||
| ZnO/ZnMn2O4 | precursors of NFs were annealed to form the heterojunction (550 °C, 2 h) | [ | ||
| TiO2/ZnO | simultaneous formation of TiO2 and ZnO was formed using combined hydrothermal treatment (150 °C, 12 h) and annealing (500 °C, 4 h) | [ | ||
| Ag-WO3/ZnO | spray pyrolysis approach was adopted to simultaneously crystallize the materials on the ceramic substrate surface (600 °C, 5 h) | [ | ||
Fig. 4. Self-assembly processes inducing the electrostatic forces of attractions between the materials to form ZSSH. (a) Formation of ZnO/COF. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [74]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (b) Formation of ZnO/CuInS2-QDs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [68]. Copyright 2024, Wiley-VCH.
Fig. 5. (a) Heterogeneous nucleation of ZnO on the surface of ZnS through annealing step. (b) Tailoring of defects in ZnS/ZnO with respect to annealing temperature. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [129]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society.
Fig. 6. (a) Growth of ZnS on the surface of ZnO-NRs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [137]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (b) Formation of ZnO-HSs with SA and growth of ZnS on its surface through combined ion-exchange reaction and annealing. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [139]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (c) Growth of ZnS on the surface of ZnO-HSs via ion-exchange reactions. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [140]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
Fig. 7. Formation of Cd-O and Zn-S rich CdS-QDs/ZnO-NSs heterojunctions under different reaction conditions. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [145]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.
Fig. 8. SEM images of ZnO/NiO obtained in different solvents like ethanol (E), methanol (M) and propanol (P) under solvothermal conditions. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [167]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
Fig. 9. (I) Schematic presentation for the formation of ZnO/BiOBr from their respective MOF precursors under wet-chemical approach. (II) SEM/TEM images of BiOBr (a,d), ZnO (b,e) and ZnO/BiOBr (c,f). (g?i) HRTEM images of ZnO/BiOBr. (j) Elemental mapping of Zn, O, Br and Bi corresponding to ZnO/BiOBr. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [168]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.
Fig. 10. TEM and SEM images of ZSSH obtained by combined electrospinning-calcination approach respectively. (a) ZnO/ZnMn2O4. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [171]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier. (b) Ga2O3/ZnO/WO3. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [172]. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature.
Fig. 11. Changes in Zn 2p XPS spectra before and after illumination in various heterojunctions. (a) ZnO/GCN. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [159]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. (b) ZnO/GCN. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [163]. Copyright 2022, Wiley-VCH. (c) ZnO/GCN-QDs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [118]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (d) WO3/ZnO. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [114]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (e) ZnO/TpPa-Cl. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [74]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (f) ZnO/CdIn2S4. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [147]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.
Fig. 12. (a) Survey spectra of ZnO/ZnS. Changes in binding energies of constituent elements in ZSSH before and after light illumination. (b?d) ZnO/ZnS. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [139]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (e?h) ZnO/ZnIn2S4. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [144]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.
Fig. 13. (a,b) Work function calculation of ZnS and ZnO. (c) S-scheme electron transfer process in ZnO/ZnS. (d) AFM image of ZnO/ZnS. (e,f) KPFM image of ZnO/ZnS in dark and light illumination. (g) Surface potential difference in dark and light. (h,i) ESR signature to validate the generation of hydroxyl and superoxide radicals as a result of ZSSH formation between ZnO and ZnS. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [130]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.
Fig. 14. Normalized ground state bleaching decay kinetics of ZnO (a) and ZnO/CdIn2S4 (b). (c) ZnO/CdIn2S4 in different atmosphere with and without BA. (d) Electron quenching dynamics in pure ZnO and ZnO/CdIn2S4. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [147]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.
Fig. 15. EPR signals of pure ZnO (Z), g-C3N4 (CN) and ZnO/GCN with different ratios. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [163]. Copyright 2022, Wiley-VCH.
Fig. 16. (a?d) Work function of ZnO, In2S3 and planar averaged charge density for ZnO/In2S3. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [131]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (e,f) Work function and average potential profile of ZnO (110) and ZnS (220) along the z direction respectively. (g,h) Planar-averaged electron density difference over pristine ZnO/ZnS and with dual surface vacancies (VS and VZn) respectively. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [137]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.
| ZSSH (OP/RP) | CO (μmol/g) | CH4 (μmol/g) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO/CsPbBr3 | 342.19 (4 h) | 11.38 (4 h) | [ |
| ZnO/TAPT-DMTP | 11.07 (5 h) | 4.86 (5 h) | [ |
| Nb2C/Nb2O5/ZnO | 47.0 (12 h) | 260 (12 h) | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | 1.45 (1 h) | 0.06 (1 h) | [ |
| ZnO/In2O3 | 12.6 (6 h) | — | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | 39.76 (1 h) | 3.92 (1 h) | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | 1.43 (1 h) | — | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | 2.0 (1 h) | 16.0 (1 h) | [ |
| ZnO/CeO2 | 176 (1 h) | 311 (1 h) | [ |
| ZnO/BiOBr | 21.13 (1 h) | 2.2 (1 h) | [ |
| ZnO/ZnMn2O4 | 3.25 (1 h) | 0.27 (1 h) | [ |
Table 2 CO and CH4 generation during CRR using various ZSSH.
| ZSSH (OP/RP) | CO (μmol/g) | CH4 (μmol/g) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO/CsPbBr3 | 342.19 (4 h) | 11.38 (4 h) | [ |
| ZnO/TAPT-DMTP | 11.07 (5 h) | 4.86 (5 h) | [ |
| Nb2C/Nb2O5/ZnO | 47.0 (12 h) | 260 (12 h) | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | 1.45 (1 h) | 0.06 (1 h) | [ |
| ZnO/In2O3 | 12.6 (6 h) | — | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | 39.76 (1 h) | 3.92 (1 h) | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | 1.43 (1 h) | — | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | 2.0 (1 h) | 16.0 (1 h) | [ |
| ZnO/CeO2 | 176 (1 h) | 311 (1 h) | [ |
| ZnO/BiOBr | 21.13 (1 h) | 2.2 (1 h) | [ |
| ZnO/ZnMn2O4 | 3.25 (1 h) | 0.27 (1 h) | [ |
Fig. 17. In-situ DRIFTS analysis and mechanistic pathways for CRR using various ZSSH. (a,b) ZnO/BiOBr. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [168]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (c,d) ZnO/COF. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [95]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (e,f) ZnO/In2O3. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [120]. Copyright 2023, Wiley-VCH.
| Heterojunction | Excitation source | Sacrificial agents | H2O2 production (µmol/g/h) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO/COF | LED, 5 W | IPA | 10560 | [ |
| ZnO/Ag2O | Piezoelectric (400 W, 40 kHz) | CH3OH | 346.9 | [ |
| ZnO/TpPa-Cl | Xe lamp, 300 W | C2H5OH | 2443 | [ |
| Cu-ZnO/TpPa-Cl | Xe lamp, 300 W | — | 1838.8 | [ |
| WO3/ZnO | Xe lamp, 300 W | C2H5OH | 6788 | [ |
| ZnO/Conjugated polymer (PBD) | Xe lamp, 300 W | CH3OH | 4070 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 300 W | — | 258.69 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | CH3OH | 928 | [ |
Table 3 H2O2 production by using various ZSSH under different excitation source.
| Heterojunction | Excitation source | Sacrificial agents | H2O2 production (µmol/g/h) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO/COF | LED, 5 W | IPA | 10560 | [ |
| ZnO/Ag2O | Piezoelectric (400 W, 40 kHz) | CH3OH | 346.9 | [ |
| ZnO/TpPa-Cl | Xe lamp, 300 W | C2H5OH | 2443 | [ |
| Cu-ZnO/TpPa-Cl | Xe lamp, 300 W | — | 1838.8 | [ |
| WO3/ZnO | Xe lamp, 300 W | C2H5OH | 6788 | [ |
| ZnO/Conjugated polymer (PBD) | Xe lamp, 300 W | CH3OH | 4070 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 300 W | — | 258.69 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | CH3OH | 928 | [ |
Fig. 18. Rate of formation (kf) and decomposition (kd) of H2O2 with various ZSSH. (a) ZnO/COF. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [74]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (b) ZnO/PBD. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [119]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (c) ZnO/GCN. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [159]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. (d) ZnO/WO3. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [114]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
Fig. 19. Influence of additives on the production of H2O2 with various ZSSH. (a) ZnO/TpPa-Cl. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [74]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (b) ZnO/GCN. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [159]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. (c) ZnO/ZnIn2S4. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [144]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (d) ZnO/Ag2O. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [69]. Copyright 2025, Royal Society of Chemistry. Note: VC = Vitamin-C or AA.
| ZSSH (OP/RP) | Excitation source | Sacrificial agents | Rate of HER (mmol/g/h) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO/ZnBi2O4 | Xe lamp, 570 W | Na2S·9H2O + Na2SO3 | 3.440 | [ |
| ZnO/In2S3 | Xe lamp, 300 W | AA | 2.887 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 300 W | TEOA | 0.20 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | TEOA | 1.988 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 300 W | Na2S·9H2O + Na2SO3 | 160.910 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 350 W | Na2S·9H2O + Na2SO3 | 15.7 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 350 W | LA | 4.8 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 350 W | TEOA | 2.5 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 350 W | Methanol | 0.6 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | Ethanol | 13.638 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | LA | 5.446 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | TEOA | 2.511 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | Na2S·9H2O + Na2SO3 | 1.945 | [ |
| ZnO/SrTiO3 | Xe lamp, 300 W | TEOA | 16.0 | [ |
| TiO2/ZnO/Ag | Xe lamp, 300 W | HCOOH | 60.4 | [ |
Table 4 Hydrogen evolution rate with various sacrificial agents using ZSSH.
| ZSSH (OP/RP) | Excitation source | Sacrificial agents | Rate of HER (mmol/g/h) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO/ZnBi2O4 | Xe lamp, 570 W | Na2S·9H2O + Na2SO3 | 3.440 | [ |
| ZnO/In2S3 | Xe lamp, 300 W | AA | 2.887 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 300 W | TEOA | 0.20 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | TEOA | 1.988 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 300 W | Na2S·9H2O + Na2SO3 | 160.910 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 350 W | Na2S·9H2O + Na2SO3 | 15.7 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 350 W | LA | 4.8 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 350 W | TEOA | 2.5 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Xe lamp, 350 W | Methanol | 0.6 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | Ethanol | 13.638 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | LA | 5.446 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | TEOA | 2.511 | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | Na2S·9H2O + Na2SO3 | 1.945 | [ |
| ZnO/SrTiO3 | Xe lamp, 300 W | TEOA | 16.0 | [ |
| TiO2/ZnO/Ag | Xe lamp, 300 W | HCOOH | 60.4 | [ |
Fig. 20. Hydrogen evolution rate using different sacrificial agents for various ZSSH. (a) ZnO/ZnIn2S4. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [149]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (b) ZnO/In2S3. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [131]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (c) TiO2/ZnO-Ag. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [173]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (d) ZnO/ZnS. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [140]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
Fig. 21. (a) Mechanistic pathways for HER over ZnO/GCN-QDs surface. Adsorption energy (b) and Gibbs free energy (ΔGH*) (c) of HER process over various catalysts surface. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [118]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
Fig. 22. Band alignments of g-C3N4/ZnO with the cell parameters of 6.57 (a), 6.75 (b), 6.94 (c), and 7.13 ? (d). (e) Charge density difference and planar-averaged electron density difference Δρ(z) of the g-C3N4/ZnO with a cell parameter of 7.13 ?. The yellow and cyan areas indicate electron accumulation and depletion region, respectively. (f) Calculated optical absorption coefficients of the g-C3N4, ZnO, and g-C3N4/ZnO with a cell parameter of 7.13 ?. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [200]. Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society.
Fig. 23. (a) Proposed defect engineering of GCN layers upon integrating with ZnO. (b) Mechanism of dye degradation process. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [116]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.
Fig. 24. Distinct effect of radical scavengers on the degradation pathways of pollutants for various pollutants. Degradation of OTC with ZnS/ZnO obtained by annealing at 500 (a) and 550 °C (b). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [129]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (c) MB degradation with ZnO/GCN. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [158]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (d) MB degradation with ZnO/NH2-MIL-88B. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [142]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (e) Sulfamethoxazole degradation with N-ZnO/Bi2MoO6. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [152]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (f) NOR degradation with N-ZnO/GCN. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [127]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. Note: PDC = K2Cr2O7.
| ZSSH | Excitation source | Pollutant | Participation of free radicals in the degradation mechanism | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO/CuBi2O4 | — | TC | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > singlet oxygen | [ |
| ZnO/ZnBi2O4 | Xe lamp, 570 W | bisphenol A | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/LaFeO3 | Xe lamp, 300 W | Hg(II) | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| ZnO/MnS | Xe lamp, 300 W | TC | hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals > holes > singlet oxygen | [ |
| PPy/ZnO/GCN | LED, 125 W | RhB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes > electrons | [ |
| ZnO/NiS | UV light (phillips), 8 W | p-nitrophenol | hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/graphene QDs | piezocatalytic (40 KHz, 150 W) | MO | hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals > holes > electrons | [ |
| ZnO/KCl-GCN | Xe lamp, 500 W | MB | holes > hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals | [ |
| ZnO/Ce-g-C3N5 | Xe lamp, 500 W | MB | holes > hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals | [ |
| ZnO/S-GCN | Xe lamp, 500 W | MB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes > electrons | [ |
| ZnO/CdS/GO | Xe lamp, 300 W | RhB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
| GCN/ZnO | piezo-photocatalytic, Xe lamp, 300 W (50 W, 40KHz) | MB | singlet oxygen > superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | Xe lamp, 300 W | MB | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| SrTiO3/ZnO | Xe lamp, 300 W | MO | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | Xe lamp, 300 W | NOR | holes > superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > singlet oxygen | [ |
| ZnO/In2S3 | Xe lamp, 500 W | TC | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| ZnO/CoTe | sunlight | MB | superoxide radicals ~ hydroxyl radicals > holes ~ electrons | [ |
| ZnO/CuMn2O4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | CIP | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| ZnO/NH2-MIL-88B | Xe lamp, 300 W | MB | hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/CdS/Ag2S | Hg lamp, 250 W | MB | holes > hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals | [ |
| N-ZnO/C/ Bi2MoO6 | Xe lamp, 300 W | sulfamethoxazole | hydroxyl radicals > holes > superoxide radicals | [ |
| ZnO/MgIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | RhB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
| V2O5/WO3/ZnO | sunlight | MB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes > electrons | [ |
| ZnO/Zn3(PO4)2 | Osram lamp, 400 W | TC | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | Xe lamp, 500 W | AR1 | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | Sunlight | MB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes > electrons | [ |
| ZnO/K-GCN | Xe lamp, 300 W | RhB | superoxide > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | Xe lamp, 300 W | NOR | hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/Fe2O3/reduced graphene oxide | LED, 24 W | OTC | holes > superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| Ag-WO3/ZnO | blue LED | cephalexin | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
Table 5 Participation of free radicals in the degradation mechanism of various pollutants using ZSSH under different excitation sources.
| ZSSH | Excitation source | Pollutant | Participation of free radicals in the degradation mechanism | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO/CuBi2O4 | — | TC | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > singlet oxygen | [ |
| ZnO/ZnBi2O4 | Xe lamp, 570 W | bisphenol A | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/LaFeO3 | Xe lamp, 300 W | Hg(II) | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| ZnO/MnS | Xe lamp, 300 W | TC | hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals > holes > singlet oxygen | [ |
| PPy/ZnO/GCN | LED, 125 W | RhB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes > electrons | [ |
| ZnO/NiS | UV light (phillips), 8 W | p-nitrophenol | hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/graphene QDs | piezocatalytic (40 KHz, 150 W) | MO | hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals > holes > electrons | [ |
| ZnO/KCl-GCN | Xe lamp, 500 W | MB | holes > hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals | [ |
| ZnO/Ce-g-C3N5 | Xe lamp, 500 W | MB | holes > hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals | [ |
| ZnO/S-GCN | Xe lamp, 500 W | MB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes > electrons | [ |
| ZnO/CdS/GO | Xe lamp, 300 W | RhB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
| GCN/ZnO | piezo-photocatalytic, Xe lamp, 300 W (50 W, 40KHz) | MB | singlet oxygen > superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | Xe lamp, 300 W | MB | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| SrTiO3/ZnO | Xe lamp, 300 W | MO | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | Xe lamp, 300 W | NOR | holes > superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > singlet oxygen | [ |
| ZnO/In2S3 | Xe lamp, 500 W | TC | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| ZnO/CoTe | sunlight | MB | superoxide radicals ~ hydroxyl radicals > holes ~ electrons | [ |
| ZnO/CuMn2O4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | CIP | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| ZnO/NH2-MIL-88B | Xe lamp, 300 W | MB | hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/CdS/Ag2S | Hg lamp, 250 W | MB | holes > hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals | [ |
| N-ZnO/C/ Bi2MoO6 | Xe lamp, 300 W | sulfamethoxazole | hydroxyl radicals > holes > superoxide radicals | [ |
| ZnO/MgIn2S4 | Xe lamp, 300 W | RhB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
| V2O5/WO3/ZnO | sunlight | MB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes > electrons | [ |
| ZnO/Zn3(PO4)2 | Osram lamp, 400 W | TC | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | Xe lamp, 500 W | AR1 | superoxide radicals > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | Sunlight | MB | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes > electrons | [ |
| ZnO/K-GCN | Xe lamp, 300 W | RhB | superoxide > holes > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | Xe lamp, 300 W | NOR | hydroxyl radicals > superoxide radicals > holes | [ |
| ZnO/Fe2O3/reduced graphene oxide | LED, 24 W | OTC | holes > superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals | [ |
| Ag-WO3/ZnO | blue LED | cephalexin | superoxide radicals > hydroxyl radicals > holes | [ |
Fig. 25. Influence of vacancies in the band bending process of RP and OP in ZSSH. (a) ZnO/ZnS. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [137]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (b) Ce-ZnO/GCN. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [121]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.
Fig. 26. (a) Kinetics of U(VI) reduction. (b) XPS of uranium species (U 4f) before and after light illumination. (c) Bacteria deactivation using ZnO/ZnIn2S4. (d,e) Gibbs free energy path for the reduction of U(VI) ions and lattice relaxation of ZnO/ZnIn2S4 respectively. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [143]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
Fig. 27. Possible charge transfer pathways in Type-II and SSH between ZnO and ZnBi2O4. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [70]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.
Fig. 28. Illustration of coupled photocatalytic reactions and S-scheme charge transfer pathways in various ZSSH. (a) Simultaneous H2O2 production and phenol degradation using ZnO/PANI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [75]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (b) Simultaneous H2O2 production and BA oxidation using CdIn2S4/ZnO. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [147]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (c) N-formylation of aniline with CO2 using W18O49/ZnO. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [112]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.
Fig. 29. An overview on the advancements in the design principles, strategies to improve the performance, factors affecting the efficacy and various photocatalytic applications of ZSSH.
| Semiconductor | Band gap (eV) | VB edge (V) | CB edge (V) | Ref. | Semiconductor | Band gap (eV) | VB edge (V) | CB edge (V) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO | 3.3 | 2.94 | ‒0.36 | [ | GCN | 2.75 | 1.70 | ‒1.05 | [ |
| CuO | 1.73 | 0.70 | ‒1.03 | [ | ZnO | 3.18 | 2.82 | ‒0.36 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.15 | 2.87 | ‒0.28 | [ | ZnS | 3.57 | 2.55 | ‒1.02 | [ |
| CuBi2O4 | 1.61 | 0.74 | ‒0.87 | [ | ZnO | 3.24 | 3.04 | ‒0.20 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.21 | 2.95 | ‒0.26 | [ | In2S3 | 2.10 | 1.20 | ‒0.90 | [ |
| CuInS2 | 1.49 | 0.44 | ‒1.05 | [ | ZnO | 3.37 | 2.975 | ‒0.395 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.32 | 3.15 | ‒0.17 | [ | CoTe | 2.24 | 1.48 | ‒0.76 | [ |
| Ag2O | 1.74 | 0.27 | ‒1.47 | [ | P-ZnO | 2.65 | 2.33 | ‒0.32 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.11 | 2.81 | ‒0.30 | [ | Bi2S3 | 1.23 | 0.80 | ‒0.43 | [ |
| BiOBr | 2.83 | 3.36 | 0.53 | [ | ZnO | 3.16 | 2.92 | ‒0.24 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.18 | 2.88 | ‒0.29 | [ | ZnIn2S4 | 2.71 | 1.48 | ‒1.23 | [ |
| LaFeO3 | 2.2 | 2.17 | ‒0.023 | [ | ZnO | 3.25 | 2.95 | ‒0.30 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.13 | 2.97 | ‒0.16 | [ | CuMn2O4 | 2.31 | 0.87 | ‒1.44 | [ |
| MnS | 1.96 | 1.26 | ‒0.70 | [ | ZnO | 3.23 | 2.47 | ‒0.76 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.18 | 2.75 | ‒0.43 | [ | ZnS | 3.47 | 1.46 | ‒2.01 | [ |
| TpPa-Cl | 1.95 | 1.23 | ‒0.72 | [ | ZnO | 3.05 | 2.76 | ‒0.29 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.2 | 2.87 | ‒0.33 | [ | ZnS | 3.34 | 2.21 | ‒1.13 | [ |
| PANI | 2.45 | 1.69 | ‒0.76 | [ | ZnO | 3.2 | 2.88 | ‒0.32 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.30 | 2.45 | ‒0.85 | [ | ZnS | 3.47 | 2.42 | ‒1.05 | [ |
| CsPbBr3 | 2.40 | 1.02 | ‒1.38 | [ | ZnO | 3.19 | 2.96 | ‒0.23 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.16 | 2.87 | ‒0.29 | [ | NH2-MIL-88B | 2.22 | 1.87 | ‒0.35 | [ |
| NiS | 3.10 | 2.28 | ‒0.82 | [ | ZnO | 3.23 | 2.87 | ‒0.36 | [ |
| N-ZnO | 3.18 | 2.89 | ‒0.29 | [ | ZnIn2S4 | 2.62 | 1.6 | ‒1.02 | [ |
| TAPT-DMTP | 2.42 | 1.75 | ‒0.67 | [ | ZnO | 3.22 | 2.78 | ‒0.44 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.28 | 2.26 | ‒1.02 | [ | CdIn2S4 | 2.29 | 1.55 | ‒0.74 | [ |
| Nb2O5 | 3.24 | 2.46 | ‒0.78 | [ | ZnO | 3.17 | 2.45 | ‒0.72 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.10 | 2.65 | ‒0.45 | [ | ZnS | 3.36 | 0.97 | ‒2.39 | [ |
| ZnS | 3.42 | 2.45 | ‒0.97 | [ | In2S3 | 2.07 | 1.10 | ‒0.97 | [ |
| CdS | 2.15 | 1.45 | ‒0.70 | [ | ZnO | 3.22 | 2.61 | ‒0.61 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.16 | 2.86 | ‒0.30 | [ | ZnIn2S4 | 2.60 | 1.77 | ‒0.83 | [ |
| Graphene-QDs | 2.96 | 1.39 | ‒1.57 | [ | ZnO | 3.20 | 2.43 | ‒0.77 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.19 | 2.81 | ‒0.38 | [ | ZnIn2S4 | 2.72 | 1.45 | ‒1.27 | [ |
| KCl-GCN | 2.45 | 1.70 | ‒0.75 | [ | {002}-ZnO | 3.18 | 3.07 | ‒0.11 | [ |
| ZnO | 2.71 | 2.32 | ‒0.39 | [ | {101}-ZnO | 3.23 | 2.95 | ‒0.28 | [ |
| Ce-g-C3N5 | 1.77 | 1.28 | ‒0.49 | [ | {100}-ZnO | 3.26 | 2.92 | ‒0.34 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.3 | 2.98 | ‒0.33 | [ | Bi2WO6 | 2.85 | 2.09 | ‒0.76 | [ |
| In2S3 | 2.1 | 1.17 | ‒0.93 | [ | N-ZnO/C | 3.0 | 2.68 | ‒0.32 | [ |
| ZnO | 2.95 | 2.68 | ‒0.27 | [ | Bi2MoO6 | 2.71 | 1.61 | ‒1.10 | [ |
| CdS | 2.27 | 1.29 | ‒0.98 | [ | ZnO | 3.2 | 2.87 | ‒0.33 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.13 | 2.57 | ‒0.56 | [ | MgIn2S4 | 2.1 | 1.35 | ‒0.75 | [ |
| Bi3TaO7 | 2.80 | 3.17 | 0.37 | [ | ZnO | 3.23 | 3.06 | ‒0.17 | [ |
| ZnO | 2.89 | 2.70 | ‒0.19 | [ | Zn3(PO4)2 | 3.02 | 0.77 | ‒2.25 | [ |
| S-GCN | 2.57 | 1.65 | ‒0.92 | [ | ZnO | 3.13 | 2.6 | ‒0.53 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.23 | 2.60 | ‒0.63 | [ | GCN | 2.78 | 1.5 | ‒1.28 | [ |
| CdS | 2.39 | 1.41 | ‒0.98 | [ | C-ZnO | 3.19 | 2.84 | ‒0.35 | [ |
| ZnO | 2.91 | 2.08 | ‒0.83 | [ | GCN | 2.86 | 2.0 | ‒0.86 | [ |
| W18O49 | 2.72 | 2.39 | ‒0.33 | [ | ZnO | 3.05 | 2.48 | ‒0.57 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.37 | 2.89 | ‒0.48 | [ | K-GCN | 2.58 | 1.88 | ‒0.7 | [ |
| WO3 | 3.27 | 2.92 | ‒0.35 | [ | N-ZnO | 3.14 | 2.86 | ‒0.28 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.20 | 2.65 | ‒0.55 | [ | GCN | 2.75 | 1.53 | ‒1.22 | [ |
| GCN | 2.70 | 1.78 | ‒0.92 | [ | ZnO | 3.1 | 2.96 | ‒0.14 | [ |
| Cu-ZnO | 3.09 | 2.83 | ‒0.26 | [ | GCN | 2.6 | 2.04 | ‒0.56 | [ |
| GCN | 2.86 | 1.66 | ‒1.20 | [ | ZnO | 3.04 | 2.70 | ‒0.34 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.04 | 2.71 | ‒0.33 | [ | CeO2 | 2.50 | 1.67 | ‒0.83 | [ |
| GCN-QDs | 2.89 | 2.33 | ‒0.56 | [ | ZnO | 3.10 | 2.87 | ‒0.23 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.23 | 2.78 | ‒0.46 | [ | SrTiO3 | 3.26 | 2.47 | ‒0.79 | [ |
| Polymer | 1.7 | 0.83 | ‒0.87 | [ | ZnO | 3.26 | 3.07 | ‒0.185 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.18 | 2.77 | ‒0.41 | [ | NiO | 3.49 | 2.905 | ‒0.585 | [ |
| In2O3 | 2.90 | 2.30 | ‒0.60 | [ | ZnO | 3.06 | 2.52 | ‒0.54 | [ |
| Ce-ZnO | 3.17 | 2.63 | ‒0.54 | [ | BiOBr | 2.77 | 2.12 | ‒0.65 | [ |
| GCN | 2.65 | 1.65 | ‒1.0 | [ | ZnO | 3.15 | 2.58 | ‒0.57 | [ |
| ZnO | 2.95 | 2.54 | ‒0.41 | [ | ZnMn2O4 | 1.98 | 0.51 | ‒1.47 | [ |
| SrTiO3 | 3.17 | 2.92 | ‒0.25 | [ | ZnO | 3.40 | 2.99 | ‒0.41 | [ |
| N-ZnO | 3.17 | 2.75 | ‒0.42 | [ | TiO2 | 3.30 | 2.96 | ‒0.34 | [ |
Table 6 Band gap and band edge potentials of various semiconductors used for the fabrication of ZSSH.
| Semiconductor | Band gap (eV) | VB edge (V) | CB edge (V) | Ref. | Semiconductor | Band gap (eV) | VB edge (V) | CB edge (V) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO | 3.3 | 2.94 | ‒0.36 | [ | GCN | 2.75 | 1.70 | ‒1.05 | [ |
| CuO | 1.73 | 0.70 | ‒1.03 | [ | ZnO | 3.18 | 2.82 | ‒0.36 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.15 | 2.87 | ‒0.28 | [ | ZnS | 3.57 | 2.55 | ‒1.02 | [ |
| CuBi2O4 | 1.61 | 0.74 | ‒0.87 | [ | ZnO | 3.24 | 3.04 | ‒0.20 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.21 | 2.95 | ‒0.26 | [ | In2S3 | 2.10 | 1.20 | ‒0.90 | [ |
| CuInS2 | 1.49 | 0.44 | ‒1.05 | [ | ZnO | 3.37 | 2.975 | ‒0.395 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.32 | 3.15 | ‒0.17 | [ | CoTe | 2.24 | 1.48 | ‒0.76 | [ |
| Ag2O | 1.74 | 0.27 | ‒1.47 | [ | P-ZnO | 2.65 | 2.33 | ‒0.32 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.11 | 2.81 | ‒0.30 | [ | Bi2S3 | 1.23 | 0.80 | ‒0.43 | [ |
| BiOBr | 2.83 | 3.36 | 0.53 | [ | ZnO | 3.16 | 2.92 | ‒0.24 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.18 | 2.88 | ‒0.29 | [ | ZnIn2S4 | 2.71 | 1.48 | ‒1.23 | [ |
| LaFeO3 | 2.2 | 2.17 | ‒0.023 | [ | ZnO | 3.25 | 2.95 | ‒0.30 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.13 | 2.97 | ‒0.16 | [ | CuMn2O4 | 2.31 | 0.87 | ‒1.44 | [ |
| MnS | 1.96 | 1.26 | ‒0.70 | [ | ZnO | 3.23 | 2.47 | ‒0.76 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.18 | 2.75 | ‒0.43 | [ | ZnS | 3.47 | 1.46 | ‒2.01 | [ |
| TpPa-Cl | 1.95 | 1.23 | ‒0.72 | [ | ZnO | 3.05 | 2.76 | ‒0.29 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.2 | 2.87 | ‒0.33 | [ | ZnS | 3.34 | 2.21 | ‒1.13 | [ |
| PANI | 2.45 | 1.69 | ‒0.76 | [ | ZnO | 3.2 | 2.88 | ‒0.32 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.30 | 2.45 | ‒0.85 | [ | ZnS | 3.47 | 2.42 | ‒1.05 | [ |
| CsPbBr3 | 2.40 | 1.02 | ‒1.38 | [ | ZnO | 3.19 | 2.96 | ‒0.23 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.16 | 2.87 | ‒0.29 | [ | NH2-MIL-88B | 2.22 | 1.87 | ‒0.35 | [ |
| NiS | 3.10 | 2.28 | ‒0.82 | [ | ZnO | 3.23 | 2.87 | ‒0.36 | [ |
| N-ZnO | 3.18 | 2.89 | ‒0.29 | [ | ZnIn2S4 | 2.62 | 1.6 | ‒1.02 | [ |
| TAPT-DMTP | 2.42 | 1.75 | ‒0.67 | [ | ZnO | 3.22 | 2.78 | ‒0.44 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.28 | 2.26 | ‒1.02 | [ | CdIn2S4 | 2.29 | 1.55 | ‒0.74 | [ |
| Nb2O5 | 3.24 | 2.46 | ‒0.78 | [ | ZnO | 3.17 | 2.45 | ‒0.72 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.10 | 2.65 | ‒0.45 | [ | ZnS | 3.36 | 0.97 | ‒2.39 | [ |
| ZnS | 3.42 | 2.45 | ‒0.97 | [ | In2S3 | 2.07 | 1.10 | ‒0.97 | [ |
| CdS | 2.15 | 1.45 | ‒0.70 | [ | ZnO | 3.22 | 2.61 | ‒0.61 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.16 | 2.86 | ‒0.30 | [ | ZnIn2S4 | 2.60 | 1.77 | ‒0.83 | [ |
| Graphene-QDs | 2.96 | 1.39 | ‒1.57 | [ | ZnO | 3.20 | 2.43 | ‒0.77 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.19 | 2.81 | ‒0.38 | [ | ZnIn2S4 | 2.72 | 1.45 | ‒1.27 | [ |
| KCl-GCN | 2.45 | 1.70 | ‒0.75 | [ | {002}-ZnO | 3.18 | 3.07 | ‒0.11 | [ |
| ZnO | 2.71 | 2.32 | ‒0.39 | [ | {101}-ZnO | 3.23 | 2.95 | ‒0.28 | [ |
| Ce-g-C3N5 | 1.77 | 1.28 | ‒0.49 | [ | {100}-ZnO | 3.26 | 2.92 | ‒0.34 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.3 | 2.98 | ‒0.33 | [ | Bi2WO6 | 2.85 | 2.09 | ‒0.76 | [ |
| In2S3 | 2.1 | 1.17 | ‒0.93 | [ | N-ZnO/C | 3.0 | 2.68 | ‒0.32 | [ |
| ZnO | 2.95 | 2.68 | ‒0.27 | [ | Bi2MoO6 | 2.71 | 1.61 | ‒1.10 | [ |
| CdS | 2.27 | 1.29 | ‒0.98 | [ | ZnO | 3.2 | 2.87 | ‒0.33 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.13 | 2.57 | ‒0.56 | [ | MgIn2S4 | 2.1 | 1.35 | ‒0.75 | [ |
| Bi3TaO7 | 2.80 | 3.17 | 0.37 | [ | ZnO | 3.23 | 3.06 | ‒0.17 | [ |
| ZnO | 2.89 | 2.70 | ‒0.19 | [ | Zn3(PO4)2 | 3.02 | 0.77 | ‒2.25 | [ |
| S-GCN | 2.57 | 1.65 | ‒0.92 | [ | ZnO | 3.13 | 2.6 | ‒0.53 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.23 | 2.60 | ‒0.63 | [ | GCN | 2.78 | 1.5 | ‒1.28 | [ |
| CdS | 2.39 | 1.41 | ‒0.98 | [ | C-ZnO | 3.19 | 2.84 | ‒0.35 | [ |
| ZnO | 2.91 | 2.08 | ‒0.83 | [ | GCN | 2.86 | 2.0 | ‒0.86 | [ |
| W18O49 | 2.72 | 2.39 | ‒0.33 | [ | ZnO | 3.05 | 2.48 | ‒0.57 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.37 | 2.89 | ‒0.48 | [ | K-GCN | 2.58 | 1.88 | ‒0.7 | [ |
| WO3 | 3.27 | 2.92 | ‒0.35 | [ | N-ZnO | 3.14 | 2.86 | ‒0.28 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.20 | 2.65 | ‒0.55 | [ | GCN | 2.75 | 1.53 | ‒1.22 | [ |
| GCN | 2.70 | 1.78 | ‒0.92 | [ | ZnO | 3.1 | 2.96 | ‒0.14 | [ |
| Cu-ZnO | 3.09 | 2.83 | ‒0.26 | [ | GCN | 2.6 | 2.04 | ‒0.56 | [ |
| GCN | 2.86 | 1.66 | ‒1.20 | [ | ZnO | 3.04 | 2.70 | ‒0.34 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.04 | 2.71 | ‒0.33 | [ | CeO2 | 2.50 | 1.67 | ‒0.83 | [ |
| GCN-QDs | 2.89 | 2.33 | ‒0.56 | [ | ZnO | 3.10 | 2.87 | ‒0.23 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.23 | 2.78 | ‒0.46 | [ | SrTiO3 | 3.26 | 2.47 | ‒0.79 | [ |
| Polymer | 1.7 | 0.83 | ‒0.87 | [ | ZnO | 3.26 | 3.07 | ‒0.185 | [ |
| ZnO | 3.18 | 2.77 | ‒0.41 | [ | NiO | 3.49 | 2.905 | ‒0.585 | [ |
| In2O3 | 2.90 | 2.30 | ‒0.60 | [ | ZnO | 3.06 | 2.52 | ‒0.54 | [ |
| Ce-ZnO | 3.17 | 2.63 | ‒0.54 | [ | BiOBr | 2.77 | 2.12 | ‒0.65 | [ |
| GCN | 2.65 | 1.65 | ‒1.0 | [ | ZnO | 3.15 | 2.58 | ‒0.57 | [ |
| ZnO | 2.95 | 2.54 | ‒0.41 | [ | ZnMn2O4 | 1.98 | 0.51 | ‒1.47 | [ |
| SrTiO3 | 3.17 | 2.92 | ‒0.25 | [ | ZnO | 3.40 | 2.99 | ‒0.41 | [ |
| N-ZnO | 3.17 | 2.75 | ‒0.42 | [ | TiO2 | 3.30 | 2.96 | ‒0.34 | [ |
| ZSSH (OP/RP) | Highlights | Ref. |
|---|---|---|
| ZnO/COF | simultaneous IPA oxidation and H2O2 production was observed | [ |
| ZnO/CuO | Hg(II) reduction was feasible with HCOOH | [ |
| ZnO/CuBi2O4 | presence of PMS promoted the TC degradation kinetics | [ |
| ZnO/CuInS2 | simultaneous glycerol oxidation and H2O2 production was evidenced | [ |
| ZnO/Ag2O | H2O2 generation was compatible through both WOR and ORR pathways | [ |
| ZnO/ZnBi2O4 | reduction of Cd2+ ions was feasible | [ |
| BiOBr/ZnO | plasma treatment of the heterostructure improved the photocatalytic performance. | [ |
| ZnO/LaFeO3 | heterostructure had mesoporous structure with good specific surface area. | [ |
| ZnO/MnS | p-type MnS was integrated with ZnO to form SSH | [ |
| ZnO/COF | stable H2O2 production was observed even after four cycles | [ |
| ZnO/PANI | simultaneous phenol degradation and H2O2 production was achieved | [ |
| PPy/ZnO/GCN | PPy served as electron-hole collectors in the ternary structure. | [ |
| Cu-ZnO/COF | combined piezoelectric and photocatalytic effects for H2O2 production was evidenced | [ |
| ZnO/CsPbBr3 | CO generation was favored in preference to CH4 via CRR | [ |
| ZnO/NiS | flower-like morphology of NiS collapsed after combining with ZnO | [ |
| ZnO/COF | heterostructure lowered the energy barrier for CO production during CRR | [ |
| Nb2C/Nb2O5/ZnO | integrated Schottky junction and SSH were reported for the first time | [ |
| ZnS/ZnO/CdS | CdS content played a vital role in the activity of the ternary system | [ |
| ZnO/graphene-QDs | dye degradation was carried by piezocatalytic process | [ |
| ZnO/KCl-GCN | heterojunction exhibited higher concentration of OVs compared to pure ZnO | [ |
| ZnO/Ce-g-C3N5 | Ce doping shifted the bandgap absorption of g-C3N5 towards longer wavelengths | [ |
| ZnO/In2S3 | ascorbic acid was a better sacrificial agent compared to LA for HER | [ |
| ZnO/CdS/MoS2 | MoS2 served as co-catalyst to promote HER | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | CO and H2 were formed during CRR | [ |
| Bi3TaO7/ZnO | photoelectrocatalytic degradation of CIP was optimized at pH 7 | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | N-ZnO-NRs were grown on the surface of GCN sheets through the hydrothermal method | [ |
| ZnO/S-GCN | Type-II type ZnO/GCN switched to S-scheme upon sulfur doping into GCN | [ |
| ZnO/CdS/GO | GO served as co-catalyst to promote the RhB degradation | [ |
| W18O49/ZnO | hot electrons mediated the N-formylation reaction of aniline with CO2 | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | singlet oxygen mediated the MB degradation under piezo-photocatalytic conditions | [ |
| WO3/ZnO | H2O2 production and stabilization was significant | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | antifouling and self-cleaning properties of GCN membranes were improved with ZnO | [ |
| Cu-ZnO/GCN | optimum Cu doping level in ZnO was found to be ~3 % | [ |
| ZnO/GCN-QDs | OVs in ZnO and active edge N sites in protonated GCN collectively promoted the adsorption of proton and HER | [ |
| ZnO/Polymer | fs-TA proved the presence of additional electron transfer pathways in the heterojunction | [ |
| ZnO/In2O3 | 100% selectivity in the production of CO was observed | [ |
| Ce-ZnO/GCN | OVs and nitrogen vacancy in ZnO and GCN respectively boosted the photocatalytic performance | [ |
| SrTiO3/ZnO | ZnO derived from ZIF-8 precursors had cage-like morphology | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | 2D/2D heterostructure was obtained by annealing the mixture of ZIF-L and GCN | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | defect concentration was regulated in ZnO/ZnS by calcining the ZnS at different temperatures | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | heterostructure was active for both H2 and H2O2 production | [ |
| ZnO/In2S3 | formation of interfacial S-O bonds was evidenced by FTIR in the heterojunction | [ |
| ZnO/CoTe | heterostructure was effective to degrade the cationic and anionic dyes | [ |
| P-ZnO/Bi2S3 | Bi2S3-nanoarrays were grown on P-ZnO gyroid macrostructure | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | KPFM technique attested the formation of in-built electric field at the interface | [ |
| ZnO/CuMn2O4 | CuMn2O4 was crystallized in the presence of mesoporous ZnO under sol-gel conditions | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | simultaneous U(VI) reduction and H2O2 formation was evidenced | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | presence of VZn and OVs boosted the kinetics of HER. | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Na2S/Na2SO3 served as better sacrificial agent compared to methanol, TEOA and LA for HER | [ |
| ZnO/NH2-MIL-88B | combination of S-scheme and Fenton reaction pathways were observed | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | heterojunction exhibited antibacterial activities | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ZnIn2S4 were grown on the surface of ZnO-NFs to form core@shell structure | [ |
| ZnO/CdS | Zn-S rich ZnO-NSs/CdS-QDs exhibited excellent photo-corrosion property compared to Cd-O rich ZnO-NSs/CdS-QDs. | [ |
| ZnO/CdS/Ag2S | ZnO-NRs served as substrate for the growth of CdS-Ag2S QDs on its surface under photochemical and microwave environments | [ |
| ZnO/CdIn2S4 | simultaneous BA oxidation and H2O2 production was evidenced | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ethanol served as better sacrificial agent for HER compared to LA and TEOA | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | CO was major product during the CRR | [ |
| ZnO/Bi2WO6 | band gap and reactive facets of ZnO influenced the performance of heterojunction towards Cr(VI) reduction | [ |
| N-ZnO/C/ Bi2MoO6 | combined effects of nitrogen doping, OVs and carbon shell promoted the pollutant degradation | [ |
| ZnO/MgIn2S4 | PZC was found to be 8.2, which favored the cationic dye degradation | [ |
| Ag-ZnO/CuO | Both CuO and Ag were deposited on ZnO surface through sputtering technique | [ |
| V2O5/WO3/ZnO | a dual S-scheme was proposed with WO3 as intermediate layer | [ |
| ZnO/Zn3(PO4)2 | surfactant nature influenced the morphology of the heterojunction under co-precipitation technique | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | direct crystallization of GCN and ZnO were observed under annealing conditions | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | egg-white was used as green template in the synthesis of heterojunction | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | H2O2 production and decomposition proceeded at faster rate | [ |
| ZnO/K-GCN | simultaneous H2O2 production and RhB degradation was achieved | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | CO and H2 were the major products during CRR | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | EPR technique was used to authenticate the formation of SSH between GCN and ZnO | [ |
| ZnO/CeO2 | CH3OH and CH4 were observed during the CRR | [ |
| ZnO/SrTiO3 | presence of Eosin-Y sensitizer promoted the rate of HER | [ |
| ZnO/NiO | composite morphology varied with nature of solvents under solvothermal conditions | [ |
| ZnO/BiOBr | Bi-MOFs and ZIF-8 were used precursors to obtain the heterostructure | [ |
| ZnO/Fe2O3 | basil seed hydrogel was utilized in the preparation method | [ |
| Nd(OH)3/N-CQDs/ZnO | dual SSH were evidenced, wherein CB electrons of ZnO participated in the degradation mechanism | [ |
| ZnO/ZnMn2O4 | ZnMn2O4-nanothorns grew on the surface of ZnO-NFs through combined electrospinning and calcination approach | [ |
| TiO2/ZnO | HCOOH served as better sacrificial agents compared to ethanol, methanol and LA for HER | [ |
| ZnO/Ag-WO3 | spinning disc photoreactor was utilized for the pollutant degradation | [ |
| PtSe2/ZnO | strain in the composite altered the nature of heterojunction | [ |
Table 7 Key research highlights on selected ZSSH.
| ZSSH (OP/RP) | Highlights | Ref. |
|---|---|---|
| ZnO/COF | simultaneous IPA oxidation and H2O2 production was observed | [ |
| ZnO/CuO | Hg(II) reduction was feasible with HCOOH | [ |
| ZnO/CuBi2O4 | presence of PMS promoted the TC degradation kinetics | [ |
| ZnO/CuInS2 | simultaneous glycerol oxidation and H2O2 production was evidenced | [ |
| ZnO/Ag2O | H2O2 generation was compatible through both WOR and ORR pathways | [ |
| ZnO/ZnBi2O4 | reduction of Cd2+ ions was feasible | [ |
| BiOBr/ZnO | plasma treatment of the heterostructure improved the photocatalytic performance. | [ |
| ZnO/LaFeO3 | heterostructure had mesoporous structure with good specific surface area. | [ |
| ZnO/MnS | p-type MnS was integrated with ZnO to form SSH | [ |
| ZnO/COF | stable H2O2 production was observed even after four cycles | [ |
| ZnO/PANI | simultaneous phenol degradation and H2O2 production was achieved | [ |
| PPy/ZnO/GCN | PPy served as electron-hole collectors in the ternary structure. | [ |
| Cu-ZnO/COF | combined piezoelectric and photocatalytic effects for H2O2 production was evidenced | [ |
| ZnO/CsPbBr3 | CO generation was favored in preference to CH4 via CRR | [ |
| ZnO/NiS | flower-like morphology of NiS collapsed after combining with ZnO | [ |
| ZnO/COF | heterostructure lowered the energy barrier for CO production during CRR | [ |
| Nb2C/Nb2O5/ZnO | integrated Schottky junction and SSH were reported for the first time | [ |
| ZnS/ZnO/CdS | CdS content played a vital role in the activity of the ternary system | [ |
| ZnO/graphene-QDs | dye degradation was carried by piezocatalytic process | [ |
| ZnO/KCl-GCN | heterojunction exhibited higher concentration of OVs compared to pure ZnO | [ |
| ZnO/Ce-g-C3N5 | Ce doping shifted the bandgap absorption of g-C3N5 towards longer wavelengths | [ |
| ZnO/In2S3 | ascorbic acid was a better sacrificial agent compared to LA for HER | [ |
| ZnO/CdS/MoS2 | MoS2 served as co-catalyst to promote HER | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | CO and H2 were formed during CRR | [ |
| Bi3TaO7/ZnO | photoelectrocatalytic degradation of CIP was optimized at pH 7 | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | N-ZnO-NRs were grown on the surface of GCN sheets through the hydrothermal method | [ |
| ZnO/S-GCN | Type-II type ZnO/GCN switched to S-scheme upon sulfur doping into GCN | [ |
| ZnO/CdS/GO | GO served as co-catalyst to promote the RhB degradation | [ |
| W18O49/ZnO | hot electrons mediated the N-formylation reaction of aniline with CO2 | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | singlet oxygen mediated the MB degradation under piezo-photocatalytic conditions | [ |
| WO3/ZnO | H2O2 production and stabilization was significant | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | antifouling and self-cleaning properties of GCN membranes were improved with ZnO | [ |
| Cu-ZnO/GCN | optimum Cu doping level in ZnO was found to be ~3 % | [ |
| ZnO/GCN-QDs | OVs in ZnO and active edge N sites in protonated GCN collectively promoted the adsorption of proton and HER | [ |
| ZnO/Polymer | fs-TA proved the presence of additional electron transfer pathways in the heterojunction | [ |
| ZnO/In2O3 | 100% selectivity in the production of CO was observed | [ |
| Ce-ZnO/GCN | OVs and nitrogen vacancy in ZnO and GCN respectively boosted the photocatalytic performance | [ |
| SrTiO3/ZnO | ZnO derived from ZIF-8 precursors had cage-like morphology | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | 2D/2D heterostructure was obtained by annealing the mixture of ZIF-L and GCN | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | defect concentration was regulated in ZnO/ZnS by calcining the ZnS at different temperatures | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | heterostructure was active for both H2 and H2O2 production | [ |
| ZnO/In2S3 | formation of interfacial S-O bonds was evidenced by FTIR in the heterojunction | [ |
| ZnO/CoTe | heterostructure was effective to degrade the cationic and anionic dyes | [ |
| P-ZnO/Bi2S3 | Bi2S3-nanoarrays were grown on P-ZnO gyroid macrostructure | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | KPFM technique attested the formation of in-built electric field at the interface | [ |
| ZnO/CuMn2O4 | CuMn2O4 was crystallized in the presence of mesoporous ZnO under sol-gel conditions | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | simultaneous U(VI) reduction and H2O2 formation was evidenced | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | presence of VZn and OVs boosted the kinetics of HER. | [ |
| ZnO/ZnS | Na2S/Na2SO3 served as better sacrificial agent compared to methanol, TEOA and LA for HER | [ |
| ZnO/NH2-MIL-88B | combination of S-scheme and Fenton reaction pathways were observed | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | heterojunction exhibited antibacterial activities | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ZnIn2S4 were grown on the surface of ZnO-NFs to form core@shell structure | [ |
| ZnO/CdS | Zn-S rich ZnO-NSs/CdS-QDs exhibited excellent photo-corrosion property compared to Cd-O rich ZnO-NSs/CdS-QDs. | [ |
| ZnO/CdS/Ag2S | ZnO-NRs served as substrate for the growth of CdS-Ag2S QDs on its surface under photochemical and microwave environments | [ |
| ZnO/CdIn2S4 | simultaneous BA oxidation and H2O2 production was evidenced | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | ethanol served as better sacrificial agent for HER compared to LA and TEOA | [ |
| ZnO/ZnIn2S4 | CO was major product during the CRR | [ |
| ZnO/Bi2WO6 | band gap and reactive facets of ZnO influenced the performance of heterojunction towards Cr(VI) reduction | [ |
| N-ZnO/C/ Bi2MoO6 | combined effects of nitrogen doping, OVs and carbon shell promoted the pollutant degradation | [ |
| ZnO/MgIn2S4 | PZC was found to be 8.2, which favored the cationic dye degradation | [ |
| Ag-ZnO/CuO | Both CuO and Ag were deposited on ZnO surface through sputtering technique | [ |
| V2O5/WO3/ZnO | a dual S-scheme was proposed with WO3 as intermediate layer | [ |
| ZnO/Zn3(PO4)2 | surfactant nature influenced the morphology of the heterojunction under co-precipitation technique | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | direct crystallization of GCN and ZnO were observed under annealing conditions | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | egg-white was used as green template in the synthesis of heterojunction | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | H2O2 production and decomposition proceeded at faster rate | [ |
| ZnO/K-GCN | simultaneous H2O2 production and RhB degradation was achieved | [ |
| N-ZnO/GCN | CO and H2 were the major products during CRR | [ |
| ZnO/GCN | EPR technique was used to authenticate the formation of SSH between GCN and ZnO | [ |
| ZnO/CeO2 | CH3OH and CH4 were observed during the CRR | [ |
| ZnO/SrTiO3 | presence of Eosin-Y sensitizer promoted the rate of HER | [ |
| ZnO/NiO | composite morphology varied with nature of solvents under solvothermal conditions | [ |
| ZnO/BiOBr | Bi-MOFs and ZIF-8 were used precursors to obtain the heterostructure | [ |
| ZnO/Fe2O3 | basil seed hydrogel was utilized in the preparation method | [ |
| Nd(OH)3/N-CQDs/ZnO | dual SSH were evidenced, wherein CB electrons of ZnO participated in the degradation mechanism | [ |
| ZnO/ZnMn2O4 | ZnMn2O4-nanothorns grew on the surface of ZnO-NFs through combined electrospinning and calcination approach | [ |
| TiO2/ZnO | HCOOH served as better sacrificial agents compared to ethanol, methanol and LA for HER | [ |
| ZnO/Ag-WO3 | spinning disc photoreactor was utilized for the pollutant degradation | [ |
| PtSe2/ZnO | strain in the composite altered the nature of heterojunction | [ |
Fig. 30. Road map in the development of ZSSH from the prospect of materials chosen for ZSSH, morphology of ZnO in ZSSH and the advancements in the design principles of ZSSH. (Note: 2D/1D should be read as 2D-ZnO integrated with 1D-semiconductor to form hierarchical ZSSH).
| Acid Red-1 | AR1 | Metdylene blue | MB |
| Apparent quantum yield | AQY | Methyl orange | MO |
| Ascorbic acid | AA | Methyl Red | MR |
| Atomic Force Microscope | AFM | Nanofibers | NFs |
| Benzyl amine | BA | Nanoparticles | NPs |
| Benzoquinone | BQ | Nanosheets | NSs |
| Carbon Quantum Dots | CQDs | Nanotubes | NTs |
| Ciprofloxacin | CIP | Near Infrared | NIR |
| Carbon dioxide reduction reaction | CRR | Norfloxacin | NOR |
| Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide | CTAB | Oxidation photocatalysts | OP |
| Covalent Organic Frameworks | COFs | Oxygen reduction reaction | ORR |
| Conduction band | CB | Oxygen vacancies | OVs |
| 2,5-dibromoterephthalaldehyde | DBTP | Oxytetracycline | OTC |
| 2,5-dimethoxyterephthalaldehyde | DMTP | Peroxymono sulfate | PMS |
| Dimethyl formamide | DMF | Polyaniline | PANI |
| Dimethyl sulfoxide | DMSO | Point of zero charge | PZC |
| Density Functional Theory | DFT | Polypyrrole | PPy |
| Diffuse-Reflectance Infra-Red Transient Spectroscopy | DRIFTS | Polyvinyl pyrrolidone | PVP |
| Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy | EIS | Quantum dots | QDs |
| Ethylenediammine tetraacetate | EDTA | Reduction photocatalysts | RP |
| Electron spin resonance | ESR | Rhodamine-B | RhB |
| Electron paramagnetic resonance | EPR | Salicylic acid | SA |
| Ethylene glycol | EG | S-scheme heterojunction | SSH |
| Fourier-Transform Infra-red | FTIR | Sodiumdodecyl sulfate | SDS |
| Hollow spheres | HSs | Tertiary butyl alcohol | TBA |
| Hydrogen evolution reaction | HER | Tetracycline | TC |
| Isopropyl alcohol | IPA | Triethanolamine | TEOA |
| Kelvin Probe Force Microscope | KPFM | 1,3,5-tris(4-aminophenyl)triazine | TAPT |
| Lactic acid | LA | Valence band | VB |
| Localized surface plasmon resonance | LSPR | Water oxidation reaction | WOR |
| Malachite green | MG | X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy | XPS |
| Metal organic frameworks | MOFs | ZnO based S-scheme heterojunction | ZSSH |
Acronyms
| Acid Red-1 | AR1 | Metdylene blue | MB |
| Apparent quantum yield | AQY | Methyl orange | MO |
| Ascorbic acid | AA | Methyl Red | MR |
| Atomic Force Microscope | AFM | Nanofibers | NFs |
| Benzyl amine | BA | Nanoparticles | NPs |
| Benzoquinone | BQ | Nanosheets | NSs |
| Carbon Quantum Dots | CQDs | Nanotubes | NTs |
| Ciprofloxacin | CIP | Near Infrared | NIR |
| Carbon dioxide reduction reaction | CRR | Norfloxacin | NOR |
| Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide | CTAB | Oxidation photocatalysts | OP |
| Covalent Organic Frameworks | COFs | Oxygen reduction reaction | ORR |
| Conduction band | CB | Oxygen vacancies | OVs |
| 2,5-dibromoterephthalaldehyde | DBTP | Oxytetracycline | OTC |
| 2,5-dimethoxyterephthalaldehyde | DMTP | Peroxymono sulfate | PMS |
| Dimethyl formamide | DMF | Polyaniline | PANI |
| Dimethyl sulfoxide | DMSO | Point of zero charge | PZC |
| Density Functional Theory | DFT | Polypyrrole | PPy |
| Diffuse-Reflectance Infra-Red Transient Spectroscopy | DRIFTS | Polyvinyl pyrrolidone | PVP |
| Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy | EIS | Quantum dots | QDs |
| Ethylenediammine tetraacetate | EDTA | Reduction photocatalysts | RP |
| Electron spin resonance | ESR | Rhodamine-B | RhB |
| Electron paramagnetic resonance | EPR | Salicylic acid | SA |
| Ethylene glycol | EG | S-scheme heterojunction | SSH |
| Fourier-Transform Infra-red | FTIR | Sodiumdodecyl sulfate | SDS |
| Hollow spheres | HSs | Tertiary butyl alcohol | TBA |
| Hydrogen evolution reaction | HER | Tetracycline | TC |
| Isopropyl alcohol | IPA | Triethanolamine | TEOA |
| Kelvin Probe Force Microscope | KPFM | 1,3,5-tris(4-aminophenyl)triazine | TAPT |
| Lactic acid | LA | Valence band | VB |
| Localized surface plasmon resonance | LSPR | Water oxidation reaction | WOR |
| Malachite green | MG | X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy | XPS |
| Metal organic frameworks | MOFs | ZnO based S-scheme heterojunction | ZSSH |
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