Atomically dispersed cocatalysts for photocatalysis: From single and dual atoms to high-entropy alloys

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65261-8

Abstract

Abstract:

With increasing demands for energy conversion and environmental remediation, photocatalysis has become an important route for efficient solar-energy utilization and small-molecule conversion owing to its green and renewable characteristics. Atomically dispersed photocatalytic cocatalysts, featuring unique structures and maximized atom utilization, bridge heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis. In recent years, this field has developed rapidly from single-atom catalysts to synergistic dual-atom sites and further to structurally complex high-entropy alloys. This review systematically summarized recent progress in atomically dispersed cocatalysts from single atoms and dual atoms to high-entropy alloys. Emphasis was placed on their synthetic methodologies, stabilization strategies, structure-performance relationships, and experimental and theoretical advances in photocatalytic water splitting, CO₂ reduction, biomass conversion, and related energy and small-molecule transformations. Finally, current challenges and prospects of atomically dispersed cocatalysts are discussed.

Key words: Photocatalysis, Single atom, Dual atoms, High-entropy alloys, Catalytic application

Ting Chen, Siyu Wu, Kangle Lv, Qin Li. Atomically dispersed cocatalysts for photocatalysis: From single and dual atoms to high-entropy alloys[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2026, 91: 68-92.

×
share this article

Add to citation manager EndNote|Ris|BibTeX

URL: https://www.cjcatal.com/EN/10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65261-8

https://www.cjcatal.com/EN/Y2026/V91/I12/68

Figures/Tables 13

Fig. 1. Publication trends of papers with the keywords “single-atom and photocataly*”, “dual-atom or diatomic and photocataly*”, and “high-entropy alloy and photocataly*” from 2019 to 2026.

Fig. 2. Content diagram of this review article: development of cocatalysts from single- and dual-atom sites to high-entropy alloys for photocatalytic applications.

Fig. 3. (a) Synthesis scheme and XRD pattern of PtSA-Mo2C@C. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [57]. Copyright 2026, Elsevier. (b) Molten-salt-mediated construction of A1-BOZ single-atom catalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [58]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. (c) Schematic illustration of the Pt SAs-CTA synthesis. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [59]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 4. (a) Synthesis scheme of the SAMo-NiFe LDH/Ti-1e15. (b) Aberration-corrected microscopy image of the sample. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [62]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley and Sons. (c) Synthesis scheme of the FeNC catalyst. (d) Atomic Gaussian-fitted overlap image and XANES spectrum of FeNC. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [63]. Copyright 2026, Springer Nature. (e) Post-synthetic Ni coordination in the TTA-BPyDA-COF framework. (f) XAFS spectra, RDF curves, and HAADF-STEM images of the samples. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [64]. Copyright 2026, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 5. (a) Preparation and site identification of Cu-DAs@COF by atomic-resolution imaging and Cu K-edge XAFS. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [76]. Copyright 2026, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Synthesis scheme, (c) XRD pattern, (d) spatial elemental distribution, and (e) atomically resolved structural image of Mncluster/MnDAC-N-C. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [77]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

Fig. 6. (a) Synthesis Scheme of M1M2Pc. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [82]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Schematic illustration of PtPd bimetallic single-atom cocatalysts promoting photocatalytic C(sp3)-H activation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [83]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. Atomic structural models of (c) Fe, (d) Cu, and (e) FeCu/ZSM (Zeolite Socony Mobil) catalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [84]. Copyright 2026, Springer Nature.

Fig. 7. (a) STEM-EDS analysis of elemental distribution in high-entropy alloy nanoparticles. (b) Schematic illustration of the low-temperature isothermal solidification synthesis of HEA nanoparticles. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [99]. Copyright 2025, Springer Nature. (c) Synthesis scheme of FeCoNiCrMn/TiO2 and the influence of pH on catalytic performance. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [100]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley and Sons. (d) Preparation scheme of PtFeCoNiCu HEA/TiO2-NF. (e,f) HAADF-STEM and EDX mapping results of PtFeCoNiCu HEA/TiO2-NF. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [101]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 8. (a) Synthesis scheme of Ru1/CdS SACs. (b) Band diagrams of CdS, Ru1/CdS, and RuNP/CdS. (c) HAADF-STEM image and EXAFS spectra of Ru1/CdS. (d) Bader-charge color maps of RuNP/CdS and Ru1/CdS. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [131]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. (e) Synthesis scheme of M-TiO2/HEAs. (f) Charge density difference and free-energy diagrams of M-TiO2/HEAs. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [132]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 9. (a) Synthesis scheme of Ce SAs/PSNC. 3D isosurface plots of electron distributions in (b) Ce SAs/PSNC and (c) Ce SAs/NC model. (d,e) PDOS analysis of Ce-4f and N-2p under S/P regulation. (f) ORR free-energy profiles of Ce SAs/PSNC and Ce SAs/NC. (g) PDOS of Ce SAs/PSNC. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [142]. Copyright 2023, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 10. (a) EDS mapping of HEA-O. (b) d-band center comparison and bond-length structural models of HEA/HEA-O. (c) Atomic charge color map of the bulk HEA-O structure. (d) Structural model of HEA-O. (e) Electron localization distributions and (f) vacancy formation energies at distinct sites of HEA/HEA-O. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [98]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic illustration of photocatalytic glucose reforming to arabinose and H2 over Mg/Pd1/PdNP-TiO2 and photographs of the outdoor photocatalytic system. (b) Photocatalytic H2 and arabinose production activity and selectivity of the as-prepared samples. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [168]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (c) Mechanism of HEA/HCN for photocatalytic hydrogen production. (d) Photocatalytic HER activity and rates of HCN and HH-x composites and comparison of HEA/HCN with representative reported photocatalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [169]. Copyright 2026, John Wiley and Sons. (e) Site-dependent formation energies of Pt/Ag atoms on CdS. (f) H2 and 1,2-diphenylethane production rates over PtAg DACS and Pt/Ag SACS. (g) Effect of catalyst mass on product yield. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [170]. Copyright 2026, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 12. (a) Schematic illustration of aqueous CO2RR over conventional TiO2 and mesoscopically engineered Cu1-C-TiO2. (b) Photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance of different single-metal-atom-loaded C-TiO2 catalysts. (c) Comparison of photocatalytic CO2 conversion performance with reported systems. (d) Photocatalytic CO2RR performance of Cu1-C-TiO2 under NIR irradiation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [189]. Copyright 2026, American Chemical Society. (e) Schematic diagram of efficient CO2 photoreduction to C2H6 over Ni-Au dual-atom sites. (f) Control experiments under different conditions and cycling stability of 1.0Ni0.5Au/In2O3. (g) Product yields. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [190]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (h) XRD pattern and crystal-structure schematic of HEA nanoparticles. (i) CO2 photoreduction performance of pristine TiO2 and x-HEA/TiO2. (j) DFT energy profiles and intermediate adsorption structures for CO2-to-product conversion over HEA(111). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [191]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 13. (a) Schematic illustration of Fe-SA/CN for selective photocatalytic upcycling of polystyrene plastic waste to benzoic acid. (b) 1H NMR spectra of PS upcycling over Fe-SA/CN at different reaction times. (c) 24 h PS conversion under different conditions. (d) Natural-sunlight-driven PS photocatalytic conversion device. (e) 24 h conversion of real PS plastic waste over Fe-SA/CN. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [200]. Copyright 2026, American Chemical Society. (f) Schematic illustration of HEA-catalyzed conversion of biomass waste to green hydrogen. (g) Influence of carbon surface area on H2 evolution during biomass conversion. (h) Variation in H2 yield with carbon surface area. (i) Effect of C-8 modification type on H2 concentration. (j) Effect of C-8 modification type on H2 yield. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [201]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (k) Synthesis scheme of Co/NC catalysts. (l) HMF oxidation activities of DA-Co-NC, SA-Co-NC, and NPs-Co-NC. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [202]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

References

[1]	Y. Luo, R. Chen, T. Dittrich, P. Gao, C. Ni, J. Zhang, Y. Zhao, D. Zhang, N. Ta, M. Li, M. Zhang, D. Li, Z. Feng, Z. Li, Y. Yu, P. Zhou, K. Domen, F. Fan, C. Li, Nat. Commun., 2026, 17, 2767.
[2]	Y. Shao, R. Shen, S. Wang, S. Li, P. Zhang, X. Li, Acta Phys.-Chim. Sin., 2025, 41, 100176.
[3]	L. Zhang, J. Zhang, J. Yu, Chem, 2026, 12, 102719.
[4]	H. Liu, X. Zhang, K. Zheng, W. Wang, X. Lao, X. Song, Y. Liu, C. Wu, D. Tang, K. Lv, Q. Li, P. Zhou, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2026, 65, e6400652.
[5]	F. Xu, L. Zheng, J. Zhang, Y. He, H. Cao, X. Zheng, H. García, J. Yu, Nat. Catal., 2026, 9, 73-86.
[6]	X. Wu, M. Sayed, G. Wang, W. Yu, B. Zhu, Adv. Mater., 2026, 38, e11322.
[7]	X. Zheng, Y. Song, Q. Gao, J. Lin, J. Zhai, Z. Shao, J. Li, D. Wu, X. Shi, W. Liu, X. Tian, Y. Liu, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2025, 35, 2506159.
[8]	Y. Bao, X. Xin, J. Qu, F. Zhang, Artif. Photosynth., 2025, 2, 1-22.
[9]	W. H. Lee, C. W. Lee, G. D. Cha, B. Lee, J. H. Jeong, H. Park, J. Heo, M. S. Bootharaju, S. Sunwoo, J. H. Kim, K. H. Ahn, D. Kim, T. Hyeon, Nat. Nanotechnol., 2023, 18, 754-762.
[10]	Z. Ni, O. Ruzimuradov, K. Turayev, S. Chen, G. Tang, J. Zhang, O. Akdim, P. Kuang, G. J. Hutchings, J. Yu, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2026, 65, e9797893.
[11]	W. Deng, X. Hao, J. Yang, Z. Jin, Appl. Catal. B, 2025, 360, 124551.
[12]	J. Yang, X. Hao, J. Jing, Y. Hao, Z. Jin, Acta Phys.-Chim. Sin., 2025, 41, 100131.
[13]	J. Liu, A. Wei, H. Zhang, S. Duo, Acta Phys.-Chim. Sin., 2025, 41, 100185.
[14]	Y. Tang, Y. Sun, Y. Li, Y. Guo, B. Liu, X. Tan, Z. Hu, D. Zhong, J. Ye, T. Yu, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2024, 34, 2405527.
[15]	B. Qiao, A. Wang, X. Yang, L. F. Allard, Z. Jiang, Y. Cui, J. Liu, J. Li, T. Zhang, Nat. Chem., 2011, 3, 634-641.
[16]	Y. Zhou, Y. Jiang, Y. Ji, R. Lang, Y. Fang, C. Wu, ChemCatChem, 2023, 15, e202201176.
[17]	P. Li, J. Lyu, Y. Zhao, H. Wu, X. Zhang, Q. Lu, Y. Xiang, B. Likozar, M. Huš, A. Zaleska-Medynska, X. Li, Chin. J. Catal., 2026, 81, 69-96.
[18]	H. Li, Q. Song, S. Wan, C. Tung, C. Liu, Y. Pan, G. Luo, H. Chen, S. Cao, J. Yu, L. Zhang, Small, 2023, 19, 2301711.
[19]	I. S. Mashkovsky, P. V. Markov, A. V. Rassolov, E. D. Patil, A. Y. Stakheev, Russ. Chem. Rev., 2023, 92, 1-32.
[20]	E. Cui, Y. Lu, J. Jiang, Arramel, D. Wang, T. Zhai, Chin. J. Catal., 2024, 59, 126-136.
[21]	X. Tao, Y. Liu, R. Lu, J. Liu, H. I. Wang, J. Yang, M. Bonn, K. Müllen, Y. Zhou, Adv. Energy Mater., 2025, 15, 2404167.
[22]	X. Liu, W. Zhong, Y. Jin, T. Wang, X. Xiao, P. Chen, Y. Chen, X. Ai, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 69, 241-248.
[23]	H. Guo, G. Wang, H. Li, C. Xia, B. Dong, L. Cao, Colloids Surf. A, 2023, 674, 131915.
[24]	M. I. Ahmad, X. Quan, H. Bai, Y. Liu, S. Chen, H. Yu, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2025, 64, e202512234.
[25]	H. Shi, T. Dai, X. Sun, Z. Zhou, Y. Wang, S. Zeng, T. Wang, G. Han, Z. Wen, Q. Fang, X. Lang, Q. Jiang, Adv. Mater., 2025, 37, e12081.
[26]	Y. Tang, H. Wang, C. Guo, L. Wang, T. Zhao, S. Xiao, J. Liu, Y. Jiang, Y. Zhao, X. Wen, F. Wang, Adv. Mater., 2026, 38, e12793.
[27]	S. Qi, K. Zhu, T. Xu, H. Zhang, X. Guo, J. Wang, F. Zhang, X. Zong, Adv. Mater., 2024, 36, 2403328.
[28]	X. Chen, S. Guan, J. Zhou, H. Shang, J. Zhang, F. Lv, H. Yu, H. Li, Z. Bian, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2023, 62, e202312734.
[29]	Y. Hu, J. Chen, H. Liu, W. Shi, W. Wang, F. Tan, X. Chi, Y. Yao, Inorg. Chem. Front., 2026, 13, 1867-1876.
[30]	S. Li, Y. Duan, X. Liang, Y. Li, D. Zhang, Chin. J. Catal., 2026, 83, 1-23.
[31]	X. Fan, L. Chen, D. Huang, Y. Tian, X. Zhang, M. Jiao, Z. Zhou, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2024, 34, 2401887.
[32]	Y. Wang, X. Cui, J. Zhang, J. Qiao, H. Huang, J. Shi, G. Wang, Prog. Mater. Sci., 2022, 128, 100964.
[33]	B. Zhang, Q. Mu, Y. Pei, S. Hu, S. Liu, T. Sun, G. Gao, Nano-Micro Lett., 2025, 17, 283.
[34]	Q. Wang, X. Liu, D. He, D. Wang, Mater. Today, 2023, 70, 218-236.
[35]	H. Tan, P. Zhou, Y. Gu, Y. Liu, W. Chen, H. Guo, F. Lin, H. Luo, X. Cao, L. Zeng, M. Luo, S. Guo, Nat. Commun., 2025, 16, 8784.
[36]	W. Zhan, N. Yang, T. Zhou, J. Zhang, T. He, Q. Liu, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 79, 162-173.
[37]	B. Feng, D. Feng, Y. Pei, B. Zong, M. Qiao, W. Li, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 76, 96-107.
[38]	Z. Yu, C. Zhao, Z. Xiong, Z. Xiao, M. He, Y. Wu, Y. Wang, P. Wu, W. Guo, N. Zhang, M. Liang, Mol. Catal., 2024, 569, 114631.
[39]	M. J. Islam, M. Granollers Mesa, A. Osatiashtiani, M. J. Taylor, M. A. Isaacs, G. Kyriakou, Nanomaterials, 2023, 13, 1434.
[40]	X. Hu, L. Tao, K. Lei, Z. Sun, M. Tan, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 73, 186-195.
[41]	F. Xie, C. Bie, J. Sun, Z. Zhang, B. Zhu, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2024, 170, 87-94.
[42]	C. Luo, Q. Long, B. Cheng, B. Zhu, L. X. Wang, Acta Phys.-Chim. Sin., 2023, 39, 2212026.
[43]	Z. Xu, Q. Zhang, Z. Huang, H. Chen, J. Zhang, W. Chen, G. Meng, D. Wang, Sci. China Chem., 2023, 66, 1241-1260.
[44]	J. Dong, T. Li, J. Yang, Small, 2025, 21, e09721.
[45]	B. Wang, X. Zhu, X. Pei, W. Liu, Y. Leng, X. Yu, C. Wang, L. Hu, Q. Su, C. Wu, Y. Yao, Z. Lin, Z. Zou, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2023, 145, 13788-13795.
[46]	F. Xie, C. Yuan, H. Tan, A. Z. Moshfegh, B. Zhu, J. Yu, Acta Phys.-Chim. Sin., 2024, 40, 2407013.
[47]	Y. Wang, S. Qin, N. Denisov, H. Kim, Z. Bad’ura, B. B. Sarma, P. Schmuki, Adv. Mater., 2023, 35, 2211814.
[48]	X. Wei, Y. Liu, X. Zhu, S. Bo, L. Xiao, C. Chen, T. T. T. Nga, Y. He, M. Qiu, C. Xie, D. Wang, Q. Liu, F. Dong, C. Dong, X. Fu, S. Wang, Adv. Mater., 2023, 35, 2300020.
[49]	R. Li, D. Wu, P. Rao, P. Deng, J. Li, J. Luo, W. Huang, Q. Chen, Z. Kang, Y. Shen, X. Tian, Carbon Energy, 2023, 5, e294.
[50]	S. Wang, Q. Zhao, Q. Ma, R. Gan, Y. Ran, W. Fang, C. Wang, L. Fang, Q. Feng, Y. Zhang, D. Wang, Y. Li, Nano Lett., 2024, 24, 11286-11294.
[51]	H. Zhao, B. Ni, Y. Pan, Y. Li, J. Li, G. Wang, Z. Zou, K. Jiang, Q. Cheng, L. Zu, H. Yang, Adv. Mater., 2025, 37, 2503221.
[52]	S. Zhong, H. Shi, C. Xiao, X. Gu, J. Wu, S. Lu, Z. Yuan, Y. Yang, D. Yu, X. Chen, J. Colloid Interface Sci., 2025, 679, 91-101.
[53]	Y. Zhou, H. Liu, H. Li, X. Song, Y. Tang, P. Zhou, Acta Phys. Chim. Sin., 2025, 41, 100067.(与[196]重复)
[54]	B. Zhao, J. Xu, F. Chen, X. Wang, H. Yu, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2025, 232, 14-27.
[55]	M. Liu, X. Liu, D. Fu, Z. Xie, X. Zou, W. Liu, Y. Yu, J. Wang, H. Wang, C. Tong, Z. Cheng, S. Wu, K. Ding, Y. Yu, Appl. Catal. B, 2022, 318, 121896.
[56]	Y. Wan, R. Li, J. Su, W. Yi, Y. Li, H. Chu, Z. Shen, S. Gao, X. Hai, R. Zhong, R. Zou, Adv. Mater., 2025, 37, 2504518.
[57]	Z. Chong, Y. Chen, Y. Zhao, R. Yu, J. Liao, Y. He, L. Luo, S. Shen, X. Gao, Z. Zuo, Z. Ma, J. Zhang, Appl. Catal. B, 2026, 387, 126503.
[58]	S. Kaushik, D. Wu, Z. Zhang, X. Xiao, C. Zhen, W. Wang, N. Huang, M. Gu, Q. Xu, Adv. Mater., 2024, 36, 2401163.
[59]	Z. Xia, L. Lin, X. Chen, J. Zhai, C. Xue, S. Jia, J. Jiao, M. Dong, W. Han, X. Zheng, T. Deng, X. Zou, C. Xian, H. Wu, B. Han, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2025, 147, 45357-45365.
[60]	M. Liu, C. Miao, Y. Fo, W. Wang, Y. Ning, S. Chu, W. Song, Y. Zhang, J. Liu, Z. Wu, W. Luo, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 71, 308-318.
[61]	H. Li, B. Zhu, B. Cheng, G. Luo, J. Xu, S. Cao, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2023, 161, 192-200.
[62]	S. Wu, W. Lu, S. Zhao, K. Zhao, N. Yan, L. Huang, D. Li, T. Jiang, H. Wu, F. Ren, Adv. Sci., 2026, 13, e15407.
[63]	X. Wei, M. An, X. Tang, J. Wei, P. Yan, Y. Qiu, D. Jiang, Y. Asakura, X. Song, T. Asahi, C. Zhu, Y. Yamauchi, Nat. Commun., 2026, 17, 1013.
[64]	Y. Xiong, S. Deng, H. Wang, S. Liu, P. VanNatta, J. Lin, J. Liu, C. Sun, X. Guo, C. Chen, A. Nafady, A. M. Al-Enizi, S. Ma, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2026, 65, e8517866.
[65]	J. Li, Z. Wu, X. Zhang, T. Yan, J. Luo, W. Xue, Z. Lv, H. Huang, C. Zhong, Chin. J. Catal., 2026, 84, 314-323.
[66]	H. Li, R. Li, G. Liu, M. Zhai, J. Yu, Adv. Mater., 2024, 36, 2301307.
[67]	H. Yang, C. Ai, Y. Zhou, B. He, J. Zhang, J. Yu, Artif. Photosynth., 2026, 2, 53-66.
[68]	Y. Zeng, X. Wang, W. Qi, C. Liu, L. Lu, M. Xiao, K. Li, F. Xiao, M. Shao, W. Xing, J. Zhu, Nat. Commun., 2025, 16, 8111.
[69]	G. Yan, X. Xu, W. Kong, A. Qin, Y. Ma, H. Li, H. Huang, H. Fan, X. Sun, T. Ma, Appl. Catal. B, 2026, 382, 125941.
[70]	Y. Chen, A. Agrelo-Lestón, I. Burgués-Ceballos, J. Llorca, L. Soler, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2026, 36, e06279.
[71]	D. Zhong, Y. Wang, M. Wang, T. Lu, Acc. Chem. Res., 2025, 58, 1379-1391.
[72]	Y. Chen, J. Lin, Q. Pan, X. Liu, T. Ma, X. Wang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2023, 62, e202306469.
[73]	M. J. Mekkering, P. C. M. Laan, A. Troglia, R. Bliem, A. C. Kizilkaya, G. Rothenberg, N. Yan, ACS Catal., 2024, 14, 9850-9859.
[74]	J. Huang, H. Chen, H. Zhu, P. Liao, X. Chen, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2025, 147, 37167-37175.
[75]	A. Zhu, Y. Cao, N. Zhao, Y. Jin, Y. Li, L. Yang, C. Zhang, Y. Gao, Z. Zhang, Y. Zhang, W. Xie, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2024, 146, 33002-33011.
[76]	Q. Niu, C. Luo, M. Yu, L. Li, Y. Yu, J. Bi, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2026, 65, e9127031.
[77]	G. Luo, E. Zhu, C. Shi, Y. Ren, Y. Lin, X. Yang, M. Xu, Appl. Catal. B, 2024, 350, 123939.
[78]	Y. Chen, J. Mao, H. Zhou, L. Xing, S. Qiao, J. Yuan, B. Mei, Z. Wei, S. Zhao, Y. Tang, C. Liu, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2024, 34, 2311664.
[79]	X. Liu, Y. Su, Q. Ma, M. Feng, K. Wang, Y. Li, J. Luo, Chem. Eng. J., 2025, 524, 168917.
[80]	L. Xiong, R. Li, K. Ba, L. Chen, Y. Shi, Y. Yu, M. Yang, Appl. Catal. B, 2026, 383, 126032.
[81]	Q. Zhao, W. Shi, J. Zhang, Z. Tian, Z. Zhang, P. Zhang, Y. Wang, S. Qiao, T. Lu, Nat. Synth, 2024, 3, 497-506.
[82]	P. Rao, X. Han, H. Sun, F. Wang, Y. Liang, J. Li, D. Wu, X. Shi, Z. Kang, Z. Miao, P. Deng, X. Tian, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2025, 64, e202415223.
[83]	Y. Zhou, X. Zhang, K. Zheng, Y. Tang, H. Liu, H. Li, P. Zhou, ACS Catal., 2025, 15, 14537-14547.
[84]	H. Zhang, S. Wang, Y. Li, H. Qin, M. Wang, Q. Chen, B. Zheng, S. Zhu, P. Zhang, C. Gu, Y. Li, Q. Hua, M. Wu, W. Wu, Nat. Commun., 2026, 17, 3526.
[85]	W. Kucza, J. Mater. Res., 2025, 40, 1046-1055.
[86]	Z. Zhang, P. Yu, Z. Liu, K. Liu, Z. Mu, Z. Wen, J. She, Y. Bai, Q. Zhang, T. Cheng, C. Gao, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2025, 147, 9640-9652.
[87]	Z. S. Toor, R. Wu, M. R. Hashmi, J. A. Lee, X. Li, H. Yuji, H. Zhang, H. S. Kim, Prog. Mater. Sci., 2026, 155, 101534.
[88]	L. Yu, K. Zeng, C. Li, X. Lin, H. Liu, W. Shi, H. Qiu, Y. Yuan, Y. Yao, Carbon Energy, 2022, 4, 731-761.
[89]	S. Tang, M. Xie, S. Yu, X. Zhan, R. Wei, M. Wang, W. Guan, B. Zhang, Y. Wang, H. Zhou, G. Zheng, Y. Liu, J. H. Warner, G. Yu, Nat. Commun., 2024, 15, 6932.
[90]	X. He, Y. Zhang, X. Gu, J. Wang, J. Qi, J. Hao, L. Wang, H. Huang, M. Wen, K. Zhang, W. Zheng, Nat. Commun., 2023, 14, 775.
[91]	K. Cai, S. Liang, J. Sun, S. Ning, J. Alloys Compd., 2026, 1050, 185934.
[92]	Y. Liu, J. Sun, X. Li, Z. Cao, L. Zhao, X. Ni, J. Zhao, Prog. Mater. Sci., 2026, 161, 101710.
[93]	R. Huang, H. Zhao, Z. Chen, Nano Mater. Sci., 2026, 8, 264-283.
[94]	Y. Zou, H. Zhao, W. Zhang, Q. Gong, J. Liu, X. Yang, J. Wang, X. Yan, Chem. Eng. J., 2025, 518, 164784.
[95]	X. Xiang, B. Cheng, B. Zhu, C. Jiang, G. Liang, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 68, 326-335.
[96]	L. Luo, H. Han, L. Chen, D. Feng, L. Li, T. Zhai, Z. Chen, R. Gao, H. Wu, S. Liu, W. Pei, Y. Li, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 2024, 90, 885-917.
[97]	S. Xie, C. Wang, Y. Xi, Y. Hu, J. Wei, H. Lin, L. Xu, P. Su, Y. Tang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2026, 65, e22878.
[98]	X. Zou, X. Zhao, B. Pang, H. Ma, K. Zeng, S. Zhi, H. Guo, Adv. Mater., 2024, 36, 2412954.
[99]	Q. Zhang, M. C. Gallant, Y. Chen, Z. Song, Y. Liu, Q. Zheng, L. Chen, K. C. Bustillo, Y. Huang, K. A. Persson, H. Zheng, Nature, 2025, 646, 323-330.
[100]	D. Li, Q. Wu, C. Wang, Z. Sun, Y. Li, Z. Yin, Y. Liu, X. Zhang, Adv. Mater., 2026, 38, e18092.
[101]	Z. Zhao, Y. Zhao, W. Wang, X. Xin, Y. Jiao, A. D. Abell, C. S. Law, A. Santos, Adv. Sci., 2026, 13, e14558.
[102]	Q. Wang, L. Meng, Z. Li, Z. Yang, Y. Tang, L. Yu, Z. Li, J. Sun, L. Jing, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 75, 192-203.
[103]	Z. Zhao, C. S. Law, A. Santos, Energy Environ. Mater., 2026, e70353.
[104]	X. Yang, X. Li, Y. Huang, Front. Chem. Sci. Eng., 2024, 18, 79.
[105]	H. Wang, G. Zhuang, Y. Fan, H. Yin, W. Zhang, Z. Wu, S. Yao, T. Lu, W. Lin, Z. Zhang, Nat. Commun., 2025, 16, 6160.
[106]	L. Zhang, C. Liu, X. Cui, ChemCatChem, 2024, 16, e202400854.
[107]	H. Islam, B. Jaksani, A. Iqbal, S. Varangane, H. V. Annadata, B. Ghosh, B. B. Sarma, R. Thapa, U. Pal, ACS Appl. Energy Mater., 2025, 8, 9770-9780.
[108]	Z. Jiao, C. Zhang, Y. Liu, L. Guo, Z. Wang, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 71, 197-207.
[109]	L. He, M. Zhang, P. Wang, J. Li, H. Wang, Y. Wang, X. Ye, X. Yan, S. Zhou, S. Liu, P. Zhao, X. Zhou, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2026, 265, 100-111.
[110]	D. Morris, Y. Yao, P. Zhang, ACS Nano, 2026, 20, 8959-8970.
[111]	C. Zhuang, W. Li, Y. Chang, S. Li, Y. Zhang, Y. Li, J. Gao, G. Chen, Z. Kang, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2024, 12, 5711-5718.
[112]	Y. Li, S. Guo, H. Gu, B. Wang, P. Su, X. Zhang, H. Zhang, S. Zhang, F. Yang, J. Liu, Q. Chen, J. Zhang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2025, 64, e202425601.
[113]	Z. Xie, X. Chen, W. Wang, X. Ke, X. Zhang, S. Wang, X. Wu, J. C. Yu, X. Wang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2024, 63, e202410179.
[114]	S. Luo, H. Song, F. Ichihara, M. Oshikiri, W. Lu, D. Tang, S. Li, Y. Li, Y. Li, P. Davin, T. Kako, H. Lin, J. Ye, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2023, 145, 20530-20538.
[115]	Y. Zhou, L. Zhang, M. Wang, X. Shen, Z. Zhu, T. Qian, C. Yan, J. Lu, Nat. Commun., 2025, 16, 7915.
[116]	M. Sachs, L. Harnett-Caulfield, E. Pastor, B. Davies, D. J. C. Sowood, B. Moss, A. Kafizas, J. Nelson, A. Walsh, J. R. Durrant, Nat. Chem., 2025, 17, 1348-1355.
[117]	J. J. Pais Pereda, K. V. Larionov, L. Jiang, D. V. Shtansky, P. B. Sorokin, J. Phys. Chem. C, 2024, 128, 18489-18497.
[118]	X. Wang, Y. An, L. Liu, L. Fang, Y. Liu, J. Zhang, H. Qi, T. Heine, T. Li, A. Kuc, M. Yu, X. Feng, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2022, 61, e202209746.
[119]	Z. Fan, Q. Xu, Y. Wang, Y. Cao, X. Zeng, Y. Xie, Z. Yu, Chem. Eng. J., 2025, 511, 162016.
[120]	W. Wang, Y. Tao, J. Fan, Z. Yan, H. Shang, D. L. Phillips, M. Chen, G. Li, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2022, 32, 2201357.
[121]	X. Ma, Y. Shi, J. Liu, X. Li, X. Cui, S. Tan, J. Zhao, B. Wang, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2022, 144, 13565-13573.
[122]	J. Wang, Y. Zhang, S. Jiang, C. Sun, S. Song, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2023, 62, e202307808.
[123]	H. Wang, T. Xie, Y. Zhang, Y. Wang, C. Huang, L. Zheng, C. Ma, S. Sun, Chem. Eng. J., 2025, 523, 168711.
[124]	Y. Tang, Z. Xu, Y. Sun, C. Wang, Y. Guo, W. Hao, X. Tan, J. Ye, T. Yu, Energy Environ. Sci., 2024, 17, 7882-7894.
[125]	Y. Ma, S. Liu, J. Mao, M. Sun, K. Shi, W. Li, W. Zhao, J. Shan, Y. Zhao, Z. Jiang, R. Zhang, R. Gao, W. Liu, B. Huang, G. Q. M. Lu, J. Liu, L. Wu, Nat. Mater., 2026, 25, 80-90.
[126]	Y. Pang, X. Zhang, P. Li, G. Xia, X. Zong, Y. Liu, D. Qu, K. Zheng, L. An, X. Wang, Z. Sun, ACS Catal., 2025, 15, 1061-1072.
[127]	Z. Wang, Z. Kan, C. Chen, W. Xue, F. Wang, Chem. Eng. J., 2025, 526, 170855.
[128]	Y. Meng, L. Zhong, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2026, 65, e3532397.
[129]	J. Wang, X. Niu, R. Wang, K. Zhang, X. Shi, H. Yang, J. Ye, Y. Wu, Appl. Catal. B, 2025, 362, 124763.
[130]	Q. Wang, H. Jing, W. Ou, Y. Tao, Y. Ma, T. Chen, Z. Liao, J. Wang, Q. Xu, H. Cao, L. Yu, B. Liu, C. Su, ACS Catal., 2025, 15, 11554-11562.
[131]	W. Li, X. Zheng, B. Xu, Y. Yang, Y. Zhang, L. Cai, Z. Wang, Y. Yao, B. Nan, L. Li, X. Wang, X. Feng, M. Antonietti, Z. Chen, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2024, 63, e202320014.
[132]	S. Cui, X. Zhong, Z. Li, P. Zhu, J. Hu, X. Zhou, P. Kidkhunthod, X. Wang, B. Mei, B. Xu, Adv. Mater., 2025, 37, 2504099.
[133]	J. Chi, Z. Wei, W. Guo, W. Fang, J. Yan, H. Huang, Y. Zhang, H. Luo, J. Wang, J. Liu, Z. Jiang, W. Shangguan, ACS Catal., 2025, 15, 11293-11306.
[134]	Y. Lu, D. Fan, Z. Shen, H. Zhang, H. Xu, X. Yang, Nano Energy, 2022, 95, 107016.
[135]	F. Bi, Q. Meng, Y. Zhang, H. Chen, B. Jiang, H. Lu, Q. Liu, H. Zhang, Z. Wu, X. Weng, Nat. Commun., 2025, 16, 851.
[136]	K. He, Z. Huang, X. Fu, Z. Zhou, S. Deng, N. Wang, K. Hu, L. Mei, W. Shi, Inorg. Chem., 2025, 64, 22902-22910.
[137]	J. Li, Y. Zhu, C. Li, Q. Zhang, J. Rong, S. Guo, N. Alonso-Vante, L. Yang, M. Yeh, W. Huang, X. Yu, H. Cheng, J. Ma, Nat. Commun., 2025, 16, 8827.
[138]	X. Fu, X. Zhao, T. Lu, M. Yuan, M. Wang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2023, 62, e202219242.
[139]	J. Wang, J. Ning, Q. Tang, L. Che, Y. Gu, X. Wang, X. Wang, L. Hao, L. Shi, J. Catal., 2025, 446, 116078.
[140]	W. Wang, Y. Hu, P. Li, Y. Liu, S. Chen, ACS Catal., 2024, 14, 5961-5971.
[141]	H. Wang, X. Zhang, W. Zhang, M. Zhou, H. Jiang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2024, 63, e202401443.
[142]	L. Yin, S. Zhang, M. Sun, S. Wang, B. Huang, Y. Du, Adv. Mater., 2023, 35, 2302485.
[143]	Y. Xu, F. Qiu, S. Xu, S. Zhu, Y. Zhang, H. Liu, P. Zong, L. Ma, K. Hong, Y. Wang, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2025, 35, 2417553.
[144]	Z. Zheng, X. Zhang, D. Zhan, X. Yan, L. Yang, S. Sun, Y. Wang, W. Feng, Q. Zhang, H. Parks, J. Huang, ACS Energy Lett., 2025, 10, 4962-4982.
[145]	H. Yang, Y. Ji, Q. Shao, W. Zhu, M. Fang, M. Ma, F. Liao, H. Huang, Y. Zhang, J. Yang, Z. Fan, Y. Li, Y. Liu, M. Shao, Z. Kang, Energy Environ. Sci., 2023, 16, 574-583.
[146]	Z. Miao, Y. Wang, Q. Jin, H. Rong, Q. Fu, H. Zhang, D. Wang, J. Zhang, ACS Catal., 2026, 16, 1656-1664.
[147]	X. Cheng, Y. Bi, X. Liu, L. Ji, C. Feng, S. Gao, H. Li, N. Shang, W. Gao, T. Meng, C. Wang, L. Wang, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2025, 35, 2413883.
[148]	H. Tsubota, A. Jitianu, G. Kawamura, ACS Mater. Lett., 2025, 7, 1042-1056.
[149]	S. Wan, W. Wang, B. Cheng, G. Luo, Q. Shen, J. Yu, J. Zhang, S. Cao, L. Zhang, Nat. Commun., 2024, 15, 9612.
[150]	Y. Xia, H. Yang, W. Ho, B. Zhu, J. Yu, Appl. Catal. B, 2024, 344, 123604.
[151]	K. Xu, J. Yu, W. Xia, J. Zhang, S. Han, Acta Phys.-Chim. Sin., 2026, 42, 100211.
[152]	S. Liang, F. Li, F. Huang, X. Wang, S. Liu, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 76, 81-95.
[153]	L. Zhang, X. Guo, S. Zhang, T. Frauenheim, S. Huang, Adv. Energy Mater., 2024, 14, 2302754.
[154]	Z. Xie, S. Xu, L. Li, S. Gong, X. Wu, D. Xu, B. Mao, T. Zhou, M. Chen, X. Wang, W. Shi, S. Song, Nat. Commun., 2024, 15, 2422.
[155]	O. Zakir, O. Guler, R. Idouhli, A. Nayad, M. E. Khadiri, S. H. Guler, A. Abouelfida, B. Dikici, J. Mater. Sci., 2024, 59, 12050-12064.
[156]	C. Gao, G. Duan, X. Han, Q. Shi, Y. Huang, C. Zhang, S. He, S. Jiang, Coord. Chem. Rev., 2026, 550, 217445.
[157]	R. Xia, W. Wang, T. Zhou, J. Yang, G. Jia, C. Dong, D. L. Phillips, Z. Guo, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2026, 36, e12866.
[158]	H. Long, R. Li, C. Bie, J. Zhang, J. Yu, H. García, H. Yu, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2026, 148, 17146-17156.
[159]	B. Zhu, J. Xu, Chin. J. Struct. Chem., 2024, 43, 100327.
[160]	D. Gao, J. Zhang, H. Yu, C. Jiang, H. García, J. Yu, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2026, 65, e2317803.
[161]	L. Zhao, C. Bie, B. Cheng, Chin. J. Struct. Chem., 2026, 45, 100834.
[162]	Y. Xia, B. Zhu, L. Li, W. Ho, J. Wu, H. Chen, J. Yu, Small, 2023, 19, 2301928.
[163]	X. Hao, W. Deng, Y. He, Z. Jin, Appl. Catal. B, 2025, 363, 124836.
[164]	D. Gao, H. Yu, H. García, J. Yu, Prog. Mater Sci., 2026, 159, 101663.
[165]	H. Yang, F. Rao, D. Pan, L. Chen, N. Abbas, G. Zhu, Acta Phys.-Chim. Sin., 2026, 42, 100210.
[166]	D. Yang, Q. Ye, C. Qu, L. Wang, Y. Luo, K. Shi, Y. Zhang, L. Chen, J. Colloid Interface Sci., 2026, 703, 139202.
[167]	W. Huang, Z. Li, C. Wu, H. Zhang, J. Sun, Q. Li, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2022, 120, 89-98.
[168]	H. Liu, Q. Li, X. Zhang, K. Zheng, Y. Dong, C. Wu, Y. Tang, Y. Zhou, H. Yu, K. Lv, D. Tang, P. Zhou, ACS Catal., 2026, 16, 1386-1396.
[169]	Y. Zang, J. Ren, Y. Xue, J. Tian, Adv. Sci., 2026, 13, e74691.
[170]	Y. Tang, Z. Zheng, H. Liu, W. Wang, Z. Su, X. Song, Y. Zhou, S. Zhou, Y. Dong, H. Li, P. Zhou, Adv. Mater., 2026, 38, e21903.
[171]	F. Xu, W. Mei, P. Hu, L. X. Zheng, J. Zhang, H. Cao, H. García, J. Yu, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2025, 64, e202513364.
[172]	J. Hu, R. Zhao, J. Ni, W. Luo, H. Yu, H. Huang, B. Wu, Y. Wang, J. Han, R. Guo, Adv. Sci., 2024, 11, 2410357.
[173]	W. Wang, L. Wang, Q. Liu, Chin. J. Struct. Chem., 2025, 44, 100718.
[174]	W. Song, B. Song, Y. Liang, Y. Zhou, B. Wang, W. Gao, Y. Wu, X. Ling, Y. Liu, R. Ye, Q. He, T. C. Sum, Y. Yao, Z. Lin, Z. Zou, B. Liu, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2025, 147, 39505-39515.
[175]	X. Yan, C. Duan, S. Yu, B. Dai, C. Sun, H. Chu, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2024, 190, 114086.
[176]	M. Wen, N. Sun, L. Jiao, S. Zang, H. Jiang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2024, 63, e202318338.
[177]	X. Liu, Y. Wu, Y. Li, X. Yang, Q. Ma, J. Luo, Chem. Eng. J., 2024, 485, 149855.
[178]	W. Chen, K. Bai, M. Lv, S. Ni, C. Huang, Q. Yang, Y. Zheng, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2025, 64, e202424805.
[179]	F. Yin, Q. Zhang, M. Xu, S. Wei, Y. Li, P. Chen, Y. Zhao, B. Li, Chin. J. Catal., 2026, 82, 238-250.
[180]	F. Xu, F. Zhao, X. Deng, J. Zhang, J. Zhang, C. Ai, J. Yu, H. García, Nat. Commun., 2025, 16, 6882.
[181]	X. Shi, W. Dai, X. Li, Z. Zhu, X. Dong, Z. Cui, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2025, 35, e11696.
[182]	G. Yan, B. Xu, R. Zhang, W. Teng, T. Zhou, H. Li, W. Hua, B. Lin, G. Yang, Appl. Catal. B Environ. Energy, 2025, 378, 125535.
[183]	X. Li, M. Wang, R. Wang, Y. Wang, M. Zhu, L. Zhang, J. Shi, ACS Nano, 2024, 18, 5741-5751.
[184]	Y. Bian, Y. Wang, Z. Yang, Z. Yin, H. Zhao, Y. Liu, H. Shi, Y. Su, Y. Deng, H. Wang, Adv. Energy Mater., 2025, 15, e03855.
[185]	G. Jia, Y. Zhang, J. Yu, Z. Guo, Adv. Mater., 2024, 36, 2403153.
[186]	S. Li, Y. Xu, Y. Shen, Q. Li, Z. Guo, P. Ma, X. Li, J. Clean. Prod., 2026, 538, 147377.
[187]	Y. Gu, E. Zhao, X. Wan, J. Ma, D. Liu, Y. Xiong, Adv. Mater., 2026, 38, e15661.
[188]	H. Fu, J. Tian, Q. Zhang, Z. Zheng, H. Cheng, Y. Liu, B. Huang, P. Wang, Chin. J. Catal., 2024, 64, 143-151.
[189]	H. Su, W. Orbell, Y. Qu, Z. Chen, F. Dong, X. Yang, X. Zhao, L. Chen, Y. Wang, B. Meng, H. Yin, J. Chen, L. Guo, J. Li, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2026, 148, 15181-15192.
[190]	S. Wei, S. Zhang, H. Wang, K. Zhang, Z. Zhang, Z. Ya, S. Yan, M. Li, H. Wang, ACS Catal., 2025, 16, 392-403.
[191]	H. Huang, J. Zhao, H. Guo, B. Weng, H. Zhang, R. Ali Saha, M. Zhang, F. Lai, Y. Zhou, R. Juan, P. Chen, S. Wang, J. A. Steele, F. Zhong, T. Liu, J. Hofkens, Y. Zheng, J. Long, M. B. J. Roeffaers, Adv. Mater., 2024, 36, 2313209.
[192]	Y. Luo, X. Yang, H. Sun, N. Wang, Y. Liu, Y. Li, Chem. Res. Chin. Univ., 2026, 42, 283-293.
[193]	L. Liu, X. Lei, J. Guo, X. Mo, Y. Lao, S. Zhuang, H. Zeng, S. Yang, Y. Zhao, W. Xu, J. He, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2025, 147, 27981-27991.
[194]	E. Wang, Y. Chu, W. Zhang, Y. Wei, C. Si, R. Palkovits, X. Wu, Z. Chen, Chin. J. Catal., 2025, 74, 308-318.
[195]	R. Zhao, L. Li, Y. Yan, X. Xue, Y. Huo, T. Liu, H. Wang, C. Liu, S. Zhang, S. Sun, X. Zhang, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2025, 17, 38367-38378.
[196]	Y. Wang, Q. Zhang, C. Han, W. Jia, H. Liu, R. Zhang, L. Peng, T. Lv, L. Ye, J. Zhang, ACS Catal., 2026, 16, 13525-13536.
[197]	Y. Han, Q. Fang, Q. Wu, H. Yin, X. Mao, Q. Li, X. Yao, A. Du, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2026, 148, 8604-8611.
[198]	G. Sun, Z. Tai, J. Zhang, B. Cheng, H. Yu, J. Yu, Appl. Catal. B Environ. Energy, 2024, 358, 124459.
[199]	G. Sun, J. Zhang, B. Cheng, H. Yu, J. Yu, J. Xu, Chem. Eng. J., 2023, 476, 146818.
[200]	R. Wei, Y. Shi, M. Li, S. Zhang, K. Cao, X. Diao, Z. Zhang, N. Ji, Environ. Sci. Technol., 2026, 60, 13192-13202.
[201]	J. Lin, Q. Yao, X. Lin, D. Wang, K. Wu, H. Huang, C. Zhang, J. Jiang, Y. Huang, J. Zheng, Z. Zheng, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2025, 13, 17596-17607.
[202]	W. Xie, S. Wang, Y. Tang, Y. Song, Y. Sun, X. Ke, T. Li, H. Fang, C. Wang, C. Hu, L. Lin, X. Tang, Appl. Catal. B, 2025, 379, 125730.