Mechanism insights into the synergistic catalysis of bimetallic RuCo alloys for the highly selective reductive amination of biomass-derived furfural

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65215-1

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2026, Vol. 90: 309-332.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65215-1

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Mechanism insights into the synergistic catalysis of bimetallic RuCo alloys for the highly selective reductive amination of biomass-derived furfural

Jun Wu^a^,^*(), Jiahao Bai^a, Gang Pan^a, Tailong Shi^a, Yongjie Xi^b^,^*(), Fuwei Li^c^,^d^,^*(), Yong Li^a^,^*()

^a Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Green Preparation and Functionalization for Inorganic Materials, School of Materials Science & Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi’an 710021, Shaanxi, China
^b State Key Laboratory of Low Carbon Catalysis and Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, China
^c School of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
^d State Key Laboratory of Mesoscience and Process Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China

Received:2026-02-24 Accepted:2026-04-28 Online:2026-11-05 Published:2026-09-09
About author:First author contact:CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jun Wu: writing-original draft, writing-review and editing, methodology, conceptualization, resources, funding acquisition, investigation, supervision, visualization, project administration. Jiahao Bai: writing-original draft, data curation, methodology, investigation, validation, formal analysis. Gang Pan: writing-original draft, data curation, methodology, investigation, validation, formal analysis. Tailong Shi: validation, formal analysis. Yongjie Xi: methodology, software, investigation, visualization. Fuwei Li: writing-review and editing, methodology, visualization. Yong Li: writing-review and editing, project administration, supervision.
Supported by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China(21902094);National Natural Science Foundation of China(22472177);China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(2020M683405);Young Talent Fund of Association for Science and Technology in Shaanxi, China(20260604);Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province(2023-JC-QN-0103);Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province(2026JC-YBMS-0138);Open Fund of State Key Laboratory of Mesoscience and Process Engineering(MESO-25-D16)

Abstract

Abstract:

The highly selective synthesis of valuable primary amines through the reductive amination of renewable biomass-derived carbonyl compounds under mild conditions remains a significant challenge. Herein, we developed a series of bimetallic nanocatalysts featuring RuCo alloys embedded within N-doped hollow carbon spheres (Ru₂Co₁@NHCS-T, T: 600-800) via the hard template-directed in situ synthesis routes. Through RuCo alloying effects and metal-support interaction, the electronic structure and geometric configuration of bimetallic RuCo catalysts were targetedly modulated and constructed the bifunctional active sites consisted of electron-rich Ru⁰ and electron-deficient Co^δ⁺ within RuCo alloys, achieving the simultaneously improved catalytic activity, primary amine selectivity and stability for biomass-derived furfural reductive amination. The optimized Ru₂Co₁@NHCS-600 catalyst presented a 98.1% furfurylamine yield and a high initial reaction rate of 238.65 mol_FUA mol_Sm^-1 h^-1 under mild conditions of 0.1 MPa hydrogen, markedly outperforming monometallic Ru@NHCS-600 and most previously reported catalysts. The synergistic catalysis of RuCo alloys contributed to the superior catalytic performance of Ru₂Co₁@NHCS-600 for furfural reductive amination based on systematic structure characterizations and intrinsic kinetic evaluations. Notably, the electron-rich Ru⁰ active sites significantly enhanced the adsorption and dissociation activation of H₂, while the electron-deficient Co^δ⁺ sites synergistically promoted the adsorption and activation of furfural, NH₃ and Schiff base intermediate during the tandem reductive amination. Combined with density functional theory calculations, the catalytic advantages of bimetallic RuCo compared with monometallic counterparts and the ammonolysis reaction mechanism for the key Schiff base intermediate were clarified. The proposed synergistic catalysis strategy of bimetallic RuCo catalysts provided important guidance for rational design of high-performance catalysts for sustainable synthesis of valuable nitrogen-containing compounds via biomass conversion.

Key words: Synergistic catalysis, Bimetallic catalyst, Reductive amination, Furfural, Primary amine

Jun Wu, Jiahao Bai, Gang Pan, Tailong Shi, Yongjie Xi, Fuwei Li, Yong Li. Mechanism insights into the synergistic catalysis of bimetallic RuCo alloys for the highly selective reductive amination of biomass-derived furfural[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2026, 90: 309-332.

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URL: https://www.cjcatal.com/EN/10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65215-1

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Figures/Tables 14

Scheme 1. Limitations and corresponding strategies for reported noble and non-noble metal catalysts for furfural reductive amination, along with the synergistic catalysis strategy of bimetallic RuCo catalysts of this work.

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic illustration for the synthesis pathways of Ru2Co1@NHCS-T catalysts. (b) TGA curves of various catalyst precursors. XRD patterns (c) and Raman spectra (d) of various catalysts.

Fig. 2. Morphology and microstructure characterizations: SEM images of PS nanospheres (a), the PDA-RuCo@PS precursor (b) and Ru2Co1@NHCS-600 (c). (d-f) AC-HAADF-STEM images and the particle size distribution histograms of Ru2Co1@NHCS-600. AC-HAADF-STEM images of Ru2Co1@NHCS-600 and the corresponding elemental mappings of C, N, Ru, Co: elemental mappings at 100 nm scale (g), line scan across a RuCo alloy nanoparticle (h), and elemental mappings at 10 nm scale (i).

Fig. 3. N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms (a), the pore size distributions determined by the BJH method (b) and NLDFT/GCMC method (c) based on the adsorption isotherms of various catalysts. (d) H2-TPR profiles of the PDA-Co@PS, PDA-Ru@PS and PDA-Ru2Co1@PS precursors.

Table 1 Reductive amination of furfural with different catalysts.

Entry	Catalyst	Conversion (%)	Selectivity (%)
Entry	Catalyst	Conversion (%)	FUA	FDA	FUI	FAL	Others
1	Blank	62.6	—	—	28.8	—	71.2
2	NHCS-600	74	—	—	23.2	—	76.8
3	Ru₂Co₁@NHCS-600	100	98.1	—	—	1.9	—
4	Ru@NHCS-600	100	53.2	40	—	1.6	5.2
5	Co@NHCS-600	84	—	4.4	28.5	—	67.1
6	Ru@NHCS-600 + Co@NHCS-600	100	69.1	28.5	—	2.4	—
7	Ru₁Co₂@NHCS-600	95	2.6	72.8	24.6	—	—
8	Ru₁Co₁@NHCS-600	100	83	14.6	—	2.4	—
9	Ru₂Cu₁@NHCS-600	90	1.8	74.2	4.6	1.2	18.2
10	Ru₂Ni₁@NHCS-600	100	83.5	6.6	—	1.5	8.4
11	Ru₂Co₁@NHCS-700	100	76.4	21.4	—	2.2	—
12	Ru₂Co₁@NHCS-800	96.4	4.8	86	7.5	0.8	0.9
13	Ru₂Co₁@NC-600	87	—	84.6	—	11.5	3.9
14	Ru₂Co₁@HCS-600	100	31.8	64.4	—	2.3	1.5

Fig. 4. Effects of reaction temperature, ammonia dosage, and catalyst dosage (a), and the different solvents (DIW: deionized water, Meth: methanol, Eth: ethanol, IPA: isopropanol, NPA: n-propanol, Diox: dioxane, Tolu: toluene, n-Hex: n-hexane) (b) on the reductive amination of furfural. (c) The stability tests of Ru2Co1@NHCS-600 catalyst at different reaction times, reaction conditions: furfural (0.5 mmol), catalyst (5 mg), ethanol (5.5 mL), NH3·H2O (1 mL, 25%-28%), H2 (0.1 MPa), 110 °C.

Fig. 5. Time courses for the reductive amination of furfural over Ru2Co1@NHCS-600 (a), Ru@NHCS-600 (b), and Co@NHCS-600 (c) catalysts. (d) GC profiles of the furfural reductive amination process at different reaction times over Ru2Co1@NHCS-600 catalyst. (e) The reaction networks for furfural reductive amination to furfurylamine and the possible byproducts. Reaction conditions: furfural (0.5 mmol), H2 (0.1 MPa), ethanol (5.5 mL), NH3·H2O (1 mL, 25%-28%), Ru2Co1@NHCS-600 (5 mg), 110 °C.

Fig. 6. The plots of the natural logarithm of furfurylamine concentration with respect to reaction time under 100-130 °C over Ru2Co1@NHCS-600 (a) and Ru@NHCS-600 (b) catalysts. (c) The corresponding Arrhenius plots for the reaction rate constants. Note: The results for each reaction were obtained from three repeated experiments. (d) The IRR and TOF over various catalysts. (e) Comparisons of conditions and performances with the previously reported catalysts [8,9,13,23,42,49,51]. Reaction conditions: furfural (0.5 mmol), H2 (0.1 MPa), ethanol (5.5 mL), NH3·H2O (1 mL, 25%-28%), catalyst (5 mg).

Table 2 Reductive amination of various aldehydes and ketones catalyzed by the Ru2Co1@NHCS-600 catalyst.

Entry	Tem. (°C)	Time (h)	H₂ (MPa)	Con. (%)	Yield (%)
1	110	1.5	0.1	100	98.3
2	110	1.5	0.1	100	96.2
3	110	4	0.1	100	96.9
4	90	2	0.1	96.6	91.8
5	90	2	0.1	100	87.2
6	110	4	0.3	100	95.1
7	110	4	0.5	100	94.8
8	110	6	0.5	100	85.7
9	110	6	0.3	100	90.7
10	110	5	0.1	98.9	91.4
11	130	8	1	94.4	92.1
12	130	12	0.5	98.5	90.2
13^b	130	18	0.5	93.9	81.7

Fig. 7. The XPS spectra of survey scan (a), relative contents of C, N, O, Ru and Co elements (b), and the high-resolution C 1s and Ru 3d (c), N 1s (d), Ru 3p (e), and Co 2p (f) for various monometallic and bimetallic catalysts.

Fig. 8. In-situ CO-DRIFTS spectra of the Ru2Co1@NHCS-600 (a), Ru@NHCS-600 (b), Co@NHCS-600 (c), and the corresponding DRIFTS spectra (d) after outgassed CO by Ar. (e) H2-TPD profiles of various monometallic and bimetallic catalysts. (f) FTIR spectra of various catalysts after adsorption of Schiff base.

Fig. 9. Structure-performance relationship of the various Ru2Co1@NHCS catalysts: The correlations between the IRR and the specific surface area (BET) (a), and the average particle size (b) of RuCo alloys determined by TEM images, and the content of surface metal-N species determined by XPS (c). The correlations between H2 desorption and the binding energy of Ru0 3p3/2 peak and the content of surface Ru0 species (d), and the correlations between IRR and H2 desorption (e), and the content of surface Coδ+ species (f).

Fig. 10. Spin-resolved DOS for the Ru(0001) (a), Co(0001) (b), and RuCo(0001) (c) models. The positive and negative values represent the upper and lower spin states, respectively, the energy scale is referenced to the Fermi level (EF = 0). Adsorption energies and stable adsorption configurations for the Schiff base, NH3 and H2 on Ru(0001) (d), Co(0001) (e) and RuCo(0001) (f) surfaces. Color code: C, gray; N, dark blue; H, cyan; O, red; Co, pale red; Ru, pale blue.

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic molecular models of the Schiff base ammonolysis reaction mechanism on RuCo(0001). A0: side view of metal sites on the RuCo(0001) surface; A1: adsorption of the Schiff base; A2, adsorption of NH3; TS1, NH3 dissociation into NH2* and H*; A3, co-adsorbed NH2* and H*; TS2, configurational rearrangements of adsorbed NH2* and Schiff base leading to nucleophilic attack of NH2* on the C=N bond; A4, NH2* bonds to the C atom of C=N group; TS3, approach of H* to the N atom of C=N bond; A5, bonding of H* to the N atom; TS4, further weakening of the formed C-N bond in the Schiff base intermediate; A6, stable adsorption of the Schiff‑base‑derived amination intermediate; A7, adsorption of two H* resulting from dissociation of H2 molecules; TS5, approach of an H* to the C atom of C=N bond; A8, bonding of H* to the C atom; TS6, approach of the second H* to the N atom; A9, bonding of the second H* to the N atom, yielding two molecules of furfurylamine. Color code: C, gray; N, dark blue; H, cyan; O, red; Co, pale red; Ru, pale blue. (*) denotes active species. (b) Isosurface plots of the charge-density difference for a Schiff base adsorbed on RuCo(0001): top view (upper) and side view (lower), the amount of electron transfer is given by Bader charge analysis. (c) Schematic illustration of the synergistic catalysis mechanism for the reductive amination of furfural to furfurylamine over the bimetallic RuCo catalyst.

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Mechanism insights into the synergistic catalysis of bimetallic RuCo alloys for the highly selective reductive amination of biomass-derived furfural

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