Recent advances in catalytic conversion technologies for plastic waste upgrading

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65230-8

Chinese Journal of Catalysis ›› 2026, Vol. 91: 1-49.DOI: 10.1016/S1872-2067(26)65230-8

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Recent advances in catalytic conversion technologies for plastic waste upgrading

Yang Wan^a, Bao Zou^a, Xianghai Song^a, Yan Liu^a^,^*(), Jianmin Luo^b, Xin Liu^a, Xin Li^c^,^*(), Pengwei Huo^a^,^*()

^a Institute of Green Chemistry and Chemical Technology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, Jiangsu, China
^b School of Chemistry and Civil Engineering, Shaoguan University, Shaoguan 512005, Guangdong, China
^c Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Chemical Engineering, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, China

Received:2026-04-25 Accepted:2026-06-22 Online:2026-12-18 Published:2026-10-13
About author:Yan Liu received her B.A. degree from Nanjing Normal University in 2003, and Ph.D degree from Jiangsu University in 2011. From 2018-2019, she worked as a visiting scholar at the University of California, Irvine (USA). Her research interests currently focus on design of functional materials and their applications in engineering and catalysis. She has published more than 60 peer-reviewed papers.
Xin Li received his BS and PhD degrees in chemical engineering from Zhengzhou University in 2002 and South China University of Technology in 2007, respectively. Then, he joined the South China Agricultural University as a faculty staff member, and became a professor in 2017. During 2012 and 2019, he worked as a visiting scholar at the Electrochemistry Center, the University of Texas at Austin, and the Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, respectively. His research interests include photocatalysis, photoelectrochemistry, adsorption, biomass engineering and the development of related materials and devices.
Pengwei Huo received his Ph.D. in Environmental Science and Engineering from Jiangsu University. He joined the School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering at Jiangsu University as a lecturer in 2011, was promoted to associate professor in 2014. Between 2015 and 2016, he served as a postdoctoral researcher at VSB-Technical University of Ostrava in the Czech Republic. Since 2019, he has held the position of professor and doctoral supervisor at Jiangsu University. His research interests include environmental catalysis, the design and applications of functional materials, and the resource utilization of waste plastics.
First author contact:Authors contributions
Yang Wan: Writing - review & editing, Writing - original draft, Data curation, Conceptualization; Bao Zou, Xianghai Song, and Xin Liu: Data curation, Software, Formal analysis; Jianmin Luo: Project administration, Validation, Supervision; Yan Liu, and Xin Li: Project administration, Methodology, Review & editing; Pengwei Huo: Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition.
Supported by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China(22578189);the Key Laboratory for Palygorskite Science and Applied Technology of Jiangsu(HPK202401)

Abstract

Abstract:

The rapid growth in plastic consumption and improper disposal have exacerbated plastic pollution (“white pollution”) and resulted in a significant waste of hydrocarbon resources. Based on the concepts of circular economy and “carbon peaking, carbon neutrality”, the upgrading and transformation of plastic waste is receiving increasing attention. In recent years, catalytic conversion technology has become a key method to solve the contradiction between plastic pollution and resource utilization, including but not limited to photocatalysis, thermocatalysis, electrocatalysis, and biocatalysis. It can not only directly and effectively reduce environmental pollution, but also produce high-value chemicals, fuels from waste resources, thereby alleviating the global energy shortage. Based on this, this review systematically elucidates the direct and indirect pathways for plastic upcycling, and provides an in-depth comparison of the reaction mechanisms, catalyst design strategies, and selective activation rules of chemical bonds across different catalytic approaches. For the first time, it systematically integrates the latest research progress on photocatalytic, thermocatalytic, electrocatalytic, biocatalytic, and synergistic catalytic technologies for the upgrading conversion of typical plastics, clarifies the application scenarios and key bottlenecks of various catalytic methods, reveals the relationship between catalyst microstructure and selective bond cleavage, and proposes important directions for the future design of catalytic systems. This review aims to provide a theoretical framework for the resource-oriented conversion of waste plastics, thereby advancing the development of a green circular economy and supporting sustainable development goals.

Key words: Plastic waste, Upgraded recycling, Catalytic conversion routes, Catalytic mechanism, Resource utilization

Yang Wan, Bao Zou, Xianghai Song, Yan Liu, Jianmin Luo, Xin Liu, Xin Li, Pengwei Huo. Recent advances in catalytic conversion technologies for plastic waste upgrading[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2026, 91: 1-49.

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Figures/Tables 35

Table 1 Existing plastic treatment technologies.

Type of treatment	Advantages	Disadvantages	Applicable scenarios
Incineration	significantly reduces landfill space; recovers thermal energy	produces toxic gases; high carbon emissions; generates ash residue	mixed non-recyclable plastics with high calorific value
Landfill	simple operation; low cost	occupies large land area; pollutes groundwater and soil	contaminated plastics that cannot be recycled
Mechanical recycling	Simple process and low cost; direct reuse of plastics	decreased mechanical properties; high requirement for raw material purity	clean, single-polymer plastics (e.g., PET bottles, HDPE containers)
Photocatalysis	ambient temperature and pressure; green, low energy consumption	long reaction time; low reaction stability; plastics need to be pretreated	thin plastic films or small molecules after pretreatment
Thermal catalysis	high conversion rate and stability; technological maturity; handle complex plastics	prone to coking and deactivation; release toxic gases; Relies on noble metals/hydrogen	large-scale continuous processing of mixed plastics; high-value products
Electrocatalysis	controllable reaction pathways; can use green electricity	electrodes prone to corrosion; plastics must be pretreated	directed synthesis of high-value chemicals (e.g., small-molecule acids, esters)
Photothermalcatalysis	high energy utilization efficiency; mild conditions	requires high-intensity light source; poor catalyst stability; difficult product purity control	selective conversion of recalcitrant plastics (e.g., PVC)
Photoelectrocatalysis	synergy of light and electricity; high efficiency; can produce H₂	complex system design (requires semiconductor electrodes); difficult to scale up	small-scale production of specialty chemicals
Biocatalysis	mild conditions; high selectivity; strong substrate specificity	enzymes easily inactivated; long cycle time; narrow application range	degradable plastics; mixed plastics; conversion under extreme environments (e.g., marine, soil)

Table 1 Existing plastic treatment technologies.

Type of treatment	Advantages	Disadvantages	Applicable scenarios
Incineration	significantly reduces landfill space; recovers thermal energy	produces toxic gases; high carbon emissions; generates ash residue	mixed non-recyclable plastics with high calorific value
Landfill	simple operation; low cost	occupies large land area; pollutes groundwater and soil	contaminated plastics that cannot be recycled
Mechanical recycling	Simple process and low cost; direct reuse of plastics	decreased mechanical properties; high requirement for raw material purity	clean, single-polymer plastics (e.g., PET bottles, HDPE containers)
Photocatalysis	ambient temperature and pressure; green, low energy consumption	long reaction time; low reaction stability; plastics need to be pretreated	thin plastic films or small molecules after pretreatment
Thermal catalysis	high conversion rate and stability; technological maturity; handle complex plastics	prone to coking and deactivation; release toxic gases; Relies on noble metals/hydrogen	large-scale continuous processing of mixed plastics; high-value products
Electrocatalysis	controllable reaction pathways; can use green electricity	electrodes prone to corrosion; plastics must be pretreated	directed synthesis of high-value chemicals (e.g., small-molecule acids, esters)
Photothermalcatalysis	high energy utilization efficiency; mild conditions	requires high-intensity light source; poor catalyst stability; difficult product purity control	selective conversion of recalcitrant plastics (e.g., PVC)
Photoelectrocatalysis	synergy of light and electricity; high efficiency; can produce H₂	complex system design (requires semiconductor electrodes); difficult to scale up	small-scale production of specialty chemicals
Biocatalysis	mild conditions; high selectivity; strong substrate specificity	enzymes easily inactivated; long cycle time; narrow application range	degradable plastics; mixed plastics; conversion under extreme environments (e.g., marine, soil)

Fig. 1. Proportion of various plastics in upcycling conversion and the number of articles on plastic upcycling published between 2017 and 2026, based on a Web of Science search using the keywords: “upcycling” and “plastic” (conducted on April 30, 2026).

Fig. 2. Plastic classification, advantages, catalytic upcycling ways, and value-added products.

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of direct and indirect pathways for plastic upcycling.

Fig. 4. (a) Schematic diagram of the photocatalytic conversion mechanism in plastics. (b) Photocatalytic conversion of PLA plastics over ZnInFe-MMMO. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [42]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. (c) Photocatalytic conversion of PLA plastics on CdS-H@1NiS-0.5PdS. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [43]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (d) Schematic diagram of the complete mineralization of PET waste by g-C3N4 catalyst under photocatalytic conditions. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (e) Schematic diagram of photocatalytic conversion of PVC plastic on CDs/Zr-MOF. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [45]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (f) Schematic diagram of Pt single-atom photocatalyst converting PLA into alanine. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [46]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (g) Schematic diagram of the Pt1Au/TiO2 photocatalyst converting PET to FA. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [47]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley and Sons. (h) Schematic diagram of the Pd-B dual-atom photocatalyst converting PET and NO3- into glycine. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [48]. Copyright 2026, Springer Nature. (i) Schematic diagram of the organic catalyst PTH-3CN of benzothiazine derivatives performing photocatalytic upgrading of plastics. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [49]. Copyright 2026, Springer Nature.

Table 2 Photocatalytic conversion of plastics over different catalysts.

Catalyst	Plastic	Conditions	Products	Ref.
TiO₂	PP	pH=3, 50 h, and sunlight irradiation	CO₂	[56]
CdS QDs	PET	8 h, Xe lamp irradiation	formate, acetate, and H₂	[62]
CoS/CeO₂	PET	6 h, Xe lamp irradiation	CO₂, CO, CH₄	[67]
ZnInFe-MMO	PLA	0.5 mol L^-1 NaOH solution, 3 h, and Xe lamp irradiation	sodium lactate	[42]
S-BiVO₄/In₂S₃	PLA	5 h, Xe lamp (λ ≥ 420 nm) irradiation	acetic acid	[49]
d-NiPS₃/CdS	PLA and PET	9 h, full-spectrum irradiation	H₂, organic acid	[72]
Alk-CN	PLA and PET	7 d, UV₂₅₄ irradiation	TPA, H₂O₂	[44]
CDs/Zr-MOF	PVC	60 h, light illumination	acetic acid	[45]
Pt SAs-CTA	PLA	NH₃·H₂O, Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm)	alanine	[46]
Diatomic Pd-B	PET	24 h, Xe lamp (320 nm < λ < 780 nm)	glycine	[48]
PTH-3CN	PS, PE, PP, and PVC	405 nm LED illumination	benzoic acid, formic acid, and acetic acid	[49]

Fig. 5. (a) Schematic diagram of the preparation process for the ZIS-MT catalyst. (b) The effect of different catalysts on the weight loss of PE plastic. (c) Graph of gas yield from degradation. (d) In-situ infrared images of the degradation process. (e) Diagram of the degradation mechanism. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [97]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic diagram illustrating the conversion of PE plastic into C1. (b) TEM, HRTEM and EDS elemental mapping images of CeO2-nPOχ. (c) The yield of LDPE photodegradation for different CeO2-based photocatalysts, and the effect of the B-acid to L-acid ratio on the yield. (d) Diagram showing the variation in product selectivity for CO2, CO and CH4 over time. (e) Reaction pathways for the photocatalytic conversion of PE plastic into C1 products. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [98]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

Fig. 7. (a) Schematic illustration of the series-parallel structured catalyst (Co3O4/ZnO@g-C3N4) for the cleavage of C-C bonds in plastics. (b) The synthesis of Co3O4/ZnO@g-C3N4 material. (c) The ability of the as-synthesized photocatalysts to upgrade PE to AcOH under photocatalytic conditions; d: Calculated free energy changes for each step in the photocatalytic upgrading of PE catalyzed by Co3O4/ZnO@g-C3N4. (e) The binding energies of PE and key reaction intermediates at the ZnO, g-C3N4, and Co3O4 sites on the Co3O4/ZnO@g-C3N4 surface. (f) Mechanism of the PE photocatalytic valorization into AcOH over Co3O4/ZnO@g-C3N4. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [102]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Fig. 8. (a) Scheme for product control in the photocatalytic conversion of waste polyolefins. (b) Photocatalytic conversion performance of different plastics on MoS2/C3N4. The change in product over time on C3N4 (c) and MoS2/C3N4 (d). (e) The calculated reaction pathways and free energy diagrams for the generation of HCOOH on different catalysts. (f) Possible mechanisms for the transformation of plastics into different products. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [103]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 9. (a) Scheme for the upgraded utilisation of plastic waste using photocatalytic C-N coupling technology. (b) Morphology of CdS catalysts as observed by SEM, TEM and HRTEM, and EDS elemental mapping. (c) The yield of H2 in the photocatalytic coupling reaction of PET-derived EG with an ammonia solution. (d) The effect of varying volumes of NH3·H2O on the liquid products and H2 yield in a photocatalytic C-N coupling system. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [104]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (e) Free-energy diagram of the key reaction pathways and corresponding intermediates for the C-N coupling reaction on CdS.

Fig. 10. (a) The process and products of thermocatalytic conversion of plastics. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [134]. Copyright 2020, AAAS. (b) Conversion of HDPE using ZSM-5 zeolites with different Si/Al ratios. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [135]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (c) Schematic diagram of the conversion of PE plastic using M720 zeolite catalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [136]. Copyright 2024, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Schematic diagram of the use of FeCoAl-LDO catalysts for the thermocatalytic conversion of PS to a product rich in monocyclic aromatics. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [137]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (e) Schematic diagram of PE recycling over Pt/SrTiO3. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [138]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. (f) Schematic diagram of the conversion of PE plastic into aromatic compounds on a Pt/Al2O3 catalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [139]. Copyright 2020, AAAS.

Table 3 Thermocatalytic conversion of plastics over different catalysts.

Catalyst	Plastic	Conditions	Products	Ref.
ZSM-5	HDPE	450 °C	gas and oil	[135]
FeCoAl-LDO	PS	500 °C	C₇-C₁₂ light aromatics	[137]
SrTiO₃	PE	300 °C, 170 psi H₂	liquid products	[138]
Pt/γ-Al₂O₃	PE	280 °C	long-chain alkyl aromatics	[134]
Ru/Nb₂O₅	PET, PS, PC	200-320 °C, H₂	aromatic monomers	[151]
MCM-41 and HZSM-5	mixed packaging plastics	500 and 550 °C	BTEX	[152]
UiO-66	PE	400 °C	liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons	[153]
Single-atom Ni/WO_2.72	PE	240-260 °C and 3 MPa H₂	C_5-20 liquid fuels	[154]
RuLa-DA	PC	550 °C (hydropyrolysis) and 200 °C, 0.25 MPa H₂ (hydrogenation)	cyclohexanol	[156]

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic illustration of the selective cleavage of C-O/C-C bonds in plastics by Ru-based catalysts to form aromatic compounds. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [151]. Copyright 2020, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Schematic diagram of the conversion of mixed plastics into BETX using a tandem catalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [152]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (c) Schematic diagram of plastic conversion into useful hydrocarbons using the UiO-66 catalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [153]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. (d) Schematic diagram of plastic to fuel conversion over WOX-supported single-atom Ni catalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [154]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (e) Schematic diagram of plastic to EG and p-xylene (PX) conversion over Cu/UiO-66-NH2-A catalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [155]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley and Sons. (f) Schematic diagram of conversion of PC plastic to cyclohexanol over RuLa dual-atom catalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [156]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 12. (a) Schematic diagram of the hydrocracking of LDPE into liquid fuels using a CeHY+Rh-CeO2 catalyst. (b) HAADF-STEM and EDX mapping images of Rh-CeO2 and Rh-Al2O3. (c) Performance of different catalysts in the conversion of LDPE plastic. (d) Comparison of this work with other works. (e) Gibbs free energy profiles of the reaction pathways on different catalyst models. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [166]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 13. (a) Schematic diagram of the HDO reaction using a RuFe bimetallic catalyst for the selective cleavage of C-C/C-O bonds to convert PET. (b) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of a RuFe bimetallic catalyst. (c) TEM, HRTEM and elemental mapping of the RuFe bimetallic catalyst. Factors affecting performance: catalyst (d,e), temperature (f), and pressure (g). (h) The adsorption configurations of DMT on different catalysts, their corresponding energies, and the possible reaction pathway for the HDO reaction. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [170]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

Fig. 14. (a) Schematic diagram of the conversion of PS plastic using a Ni/NbOx catalyst in a solvent-free system. (b) Morphology and particle size distribution of Ni/NbOx catalysts. (c) Comparison of the catalytic performance of Ni/NbOx with various reference catalysts in the hydrocracking of PS plastics. (d) Diagram of hydrogenation rates and C-C bond cleavage rates for different molecular models on different catalysts. (e) In-situ IR spectra of hydrocracked PS on various catalysts. (f) Possible pathway diagram for the hydrocracking of PS over 1Ni/NbOx catalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [171]. Copyright 2026, Elsevier.

Fig. 15. (a) Schematic diagram of the depolymerisation of polyolefin plastics into monomers using high-temperature catalytic metal wires. (b) Performance diagram for depolymerised polyolefin plastics. (c) Bond breaking energies for β-C-C and β-C-H bonds obtained from DFT calculations. (d) The reaction free energy of the decomposition of the transition-state intermediate and the possible reaction pathways. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [172]. Copyright 2026, Springer Nature.

Fig. 16. (a) Schematic diagram of the conversion of waste PET plastic into CDs. (b-g) The effect of reaction temperature and catalyst loading on the yield of CDs with different fluorescent colours. (h) The pathway for converting PET into multicoloured CDs. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [173]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 17. (a) Schematic diagram of the coupling between EGOR and HER/CO2RR/NO3RR in plastic conversion. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [27]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Schematic diagram of the electrocatalytic conversion of EG on Pd NTs/NF. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [197]. Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society. (c) Schematic diagram of the electrocatalytic conversion of EG on NiCo2O4. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [199]. Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society. (d) Schematic diagram of the electrocatalytic conversion of EG on Co-Ni/CP. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [200]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. (e) Schematic illustration of the electrocatalytic conversion of EG to FA on NiMn-LDH. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [201]. Copyright 2026, Elsevier. (f) Schematic diagram of the electrocatalytic conversion of EG on Mo-Ni3S2/NF. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [202]. Copyright 2026, Elsevier. (g) Schematic diagram of the electrocatalytic conversion of EG on CoFe-P/NF. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [203]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (h) Schematic illustration of the electrocatalytic conversion of EG on PdNi/Ni(OH)2 alloy catalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [204]. Copyright 2026, Elsevier. (i) Schematic diagram of the electrocatalytic conversion of EG on NiFe LDH/MoSe2/NixSey/NF heterostructure electrocatalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [205]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Table 4 Electrocatalytic conversion of plastics over different catalysts.

Catalyst	Plastic	Potential (V vs. RHE)	FE (%)	Products	Ref.
Pd NTs/NF	PET	0.774	87.87	glycolic acid	[197]
NiCo₂O₄	PET	1.45	90	formic acid	[199]
Ni₅Mn₅ LDH	PET	1.5	92.7	formate	[201]
Mo-Ni₃S₂/NF	PET	1.38	95.6	formate	[202]
PdNi/Ni(OH)₂ alloy	PET	1.0	96.4	glycolic acid	[204]
NiFe LDH/MoSe₂/Ni_xSe_y/NF	PLA	1.385	—	CO₂	[205]

Fig. 18. (a) Schematic diagram of electrochemical conversion to FA using a Ni2+-CoOOH3/NF nanosheet catalyst. (b) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of Ni2+-CoOOH3/NF nanosheet catalysts, TEM, HRTEM and elemental mapping images. (c) Device diagram for the electrocatalytic conversion of PET-derived EG. (d) FE and formate yield of Ni2+-CoOOH3/NF at different current densities. (e) FE and FA yield at different current densities in an MEA electrolyzer. (f) Chronopotentiometry test of HER||EGOR electrolyzer at 500 mA cm-2. (g) In-situ Raman spectroscopy for the Ni2+-CoOOH3/NF during EGOR test. (h) The operando FTIR spectra of Ni2+-CoOOH3/NF for EGOR. (i) The proposed conversion pathway of EG to FA over Ni2+-CoOOH3/NF. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [221]. Copyright 2025, Tsinghua University Press.

Fig. 19. (a) Schematic diagram of EG conversion in a dual-compartment flow electrolyser using AEM. SEM and HRTEM of Mn/CoOOH (b) and OV-rich BOC (c). (d) FE of the products. (e) Total FE and production rate of formate over the two-electrode integrated system under different current strengths. (f) Chronopotential curve of the two-electrode integrated system at a cell voltage of 2.2 V. (g) The gibbs free energy for EG oxidation over CoOOH and Mn/CoOOH. (h) Operando ATR-FTIR spectra for CO2 reduction at various potentials of BOC and OV-rich BOC. (i) The gibbs free energy for CO2 reduction over BOC and OV-rich BOC. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [222]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Fig. 20. (a) Schematic diagram of the synergistic conversion of NO3RRand EGOR. (b) SEM, TEM and elemental mapping of catalysts. (c) FE of formate for the EGOR reaction. (d) FE and yield of NH3. (e) Performance comparison with other synergistic catalysis studies. (f) DOS of the CoCu LDH and Cu@CoCu LDH. (g) The Gibbs free energy diagrams of the NO3RR and EGOR over catalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [223]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 21. (a) Schematic diagram of the electrocatalytic conversion of EG to GA and H2. (b) Schematic diagram of catalyst preparation and TEM. (c) LSV curves of Pt-Ni(OH)2/NF and Ni(OH)2/NF in 1.0 mol L-1 KOH and 0.1 mol L-1 EG. (d) Comparison of applied potentials for attaining different current densities during EGOR. (e) 1H NMR of the conversion product. (f) FE of EGOR on Pt-Ni(OH)2/NF under different applied potentials. (g) In-situ FTIR spectra of Pt-Ni(OH)2/NF in an EGOR at various potentials. (h) Gibbs free energy of the EGOR process for different catalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [225]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 22. (a) Schematic diagram comparing methods for synthesizing amide products. (b) Schematic illustration of the electrocatalytic C-N coupling reaction converting EG into amide products. (c) Diagram of MnO2/CFP catalyst synthesis, TEM and elemental mapping. (d) FE of EGOR at different potentials. (e) FEs and yields of products at potentials from 1.1 to 1.4 V vs. Ag/AgCl. (g) FEs and yields of products resulting from the electrocatalytic conversion of PET bottles. (f) 1H NMR spectra of the product in different electrolyte solutions. (h) Gibbs free energy diagram illustrating the electrocatalytic C-N coupling of EG with NH3 on a MnO2/CFP catalyst to produce glycolamide and FA. (i) Proposed electrocatalytic C-N coupling reaction mechanism between EG and NH3. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [229]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society.

Table 5 Biocatalytic conversion of plastics over different catalysts.

Catalyst	Plastic	Conditions	Products	Ref.
S238F/W159H	PET, PEF	30°C, pH=7.2, 96 h	MHET	[240]
GS115/PETase-HFBI	PET	40 °C, pH=9.0	LcPET	[241]
IsPETase/DAA	PET	35-50 °C, pH=5-10, 4 h	MHET	[255]
P367A/L381A	PET	45 °C, pH=10.0, 48 h	TDA	[243]
FAST-PETase	PET	50 °C, pH=8, 11 d	TPA	[259]
Arthrinium phaeospermum LF2024	PLA	28 °C, LC-MSM, 40 d	glyoxylic acid, 2,3-pentanedione, propionic acid, etc.	[245]
Nitrifying-denitrifying microbial community	PP	35 °C, pH=8.5, 42 d	—	[246]

Fig. 23. (a) Schematic diagram of the general mechanism of the bioconversion of PET plastic. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [238]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (b) Structures of two enzymes used in PET hydrolysis. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [240]. Copyright 2018, National Academy of Sciences. (c) Schematic diagram of the Pastoris GS115/PETase-HFBI combined display system. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [241]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (d) Schematic diagram illustrating the conversion of PET plastic using PET-degrading enzyme LCC and its variants, modified via plasmid or genomic integration. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [242]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (e) A novel urethanase-5-P367A/L381A developed using a phylogeny-based enzyme screening approach. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [243]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (f) Engineered E. coli with truncated FadL to surface-display PETase and BaCBM, yielding renewable whole-cell biocatalyst D-HLCB. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [244]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (g) The new PLA bio-degradable agent Arthrinium phaeospermum. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [245]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (h) Microbial biotransformation of MP on face masks by a symbiotic bacterial community capable of both nitrification and denitrification. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [246]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

Fig. 24. (a) Morphology of the SDE-BMO catalyst. The performance of catalysts in the degradation of plastics BM series (b) and SDE-BMO series (c). (d) Change in degradation load (BMO amount loading per unit of MPEs substrate) during cultivation time of SDE-BMO-T37. (e) Comparison of MPE particle sizes before and after degradation. (f) Comparison of zeta potential values and distribution before and after degradation. (g) Comparison of XRD before and after degradation. (h) Proposed mechanism of MPEs removal by the SDE-BMO coupled system. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [264]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Fig. 25. (a) Schematic diagram of PET plastic conversion by LCCICCG hydrolase. (b) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of IC-tagged LCCICCG and enzyme-containing nanospheres. (c) Untreated post-consumer PET for degradation testing. (d‒f) Comparison of PET hydrolysis activity under different conditions. (g) The degradation performance of reused LCCICCG on PcPET-3 at 70 °C. (h) Performance of reused immobilized LCCICCG after two cycles at 70 °C. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [265]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

Fig. 26. (a) Schematic diagram of a microbial system converting PET into value-added chemicals. (b) Process flow diagram for the synthesis of lycopene via the modification of endogenous carotenoid-producing organisms. (c) Schematic of the endogenous MEP pathway. (d) Schematic overview of the overexpression of the key genes in the MEP pathway. (e) HPLC analysis of lycopene production in RPET and its derivative strains. (f) Performance of WT and strain S6 in the conversion of PET to lycopene. (g) Fed-batch fermentation in shake flasks for lycopene production using PET hydrolysate. (h) The mechanism by which PET hydrolysate is converted into lycopene on RPET. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [266]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Fig. 27. (a) Schematic diagram of conformation selection in the biocatalytic degradation of plastics by PETase. (b) The overall structure of IsPETase (PDB ID: 6EQE). (c) Comparison of PETase activity across different substrate conformations and particle sizes. (d) Possible mechanisms underlying cross-substrate preference in the S238A mutant. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [267]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 28. (a) Microwave treatment combined with photocatalytic degradation of HDPE plastic. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [275]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (b) Microwave-assisted thermocatalytic conversion of LDPE to CNTs on a Pt-promoted Fe/Ni bimetallic catalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [278]. Copyright 2026, Elsevier. (c) Photocatalytic conversion of plasma-treated PE on Pt/TiO2. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [279]. Copyright 2023, John Wiley and Sons. (d) Plasma-catalysed conversion of PE into fuel over Sm/USY. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [280]. Copyright 2026, Elsevier.

Fig. 29. (a) Schematic diagram of the photothermal degradation of plastics in an air-plastic-catalyst system. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [291]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Schematic diagram of photothermal catalytic conversion of PE to propionic acid. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [292]. Copyright 2025, American Chemical Society. (c) Photocatalysis converts PET and CO2 into high-value products. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [293]. Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (d) Enzyme-assisted photocatalytic conversion of polyester plastics into fuels and chemicals. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [294]. Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society. (e) Synergistic conversion of PE plastic into microbial lipids via catalytic pyrolysis and biotransformation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [295]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Fig. 30. A summary of various catalytic technologies used in the recycling of plastic waste.

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Recent advances in catalytic conversion technologies for plastic waste upgrading

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